Organizational Theory, Design and Change (نظریه سازمان، طراحی و تغییر)

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Organizational Theory, Design, and Change Text and Cases Fourth Edition Gareth R. Jones Basic Challenges of Organizational Design Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Learning Objectives 1. Describe the four basic organizational design challenges confronting managers and consultants 2. Discuss the way in which these challenges must be addressed simultaneously if a high- performing organizational structure is to be created Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Learning Objectives Distinguish among the design choices that underlie the creation of either a mechanistic or an organic structure Recognize how to use contingency theory to design a structure that fits an organization’s environment Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 3: 

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Design Challenge 1 = Differentiation = People in this organization take on new tasks as the need arises and it’s very unclear who is responsible for what, and who should report to whom. This makes it difficult to know on whom to call when the need arises and to coordinate people’s activities so they work together as a team. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Differentiation = The process by which an organization allocates people and resources to organizational tasks = Establishes the task and authority relationships that allow the organization to achieve its goals = Division of labor: the process of establishing and controlling the degree of specialization in the organization Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Differentiation = In a simple organization, differentiation is low because the division of labor is low. = Individuals typically perform all organizational tasks. = In a complex organization, differentiation is high because the division of labor is high. = Total process is “divided up” so that individuals perform separate tasks. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Organizational Roles = Set of task-related behaviors required of a person by his or her position in an organization = As the division of labor increases, managers specialize in some roles and hire people to specialize in others. = Specialization allows people to develop their individual abilities and knowledge within their specific role. = The identification of roles leads to authority and control issues. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Authority and Control Authority: the power to hold people accountable for their actions and to make decisions concerning the use of organizational resources Control: the ability to coordinate and motivate people to work in the organization's interests Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Subunits: Functions and Divisions = Function: a subunit composed of a group of people, working together, who possess similar skills or use the same kind of knowledge, tools, or techniques to perform their jobs = Division: a subunit that consists of a collection of functions or departments that share responsibility for producing a particular good or services Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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10 Five Function Types Support functions: facilitate an organization’s control of its relations with its environment and its stakeholders Purchasing, sales and marketing, public relations and legal affairs Production functions: manage and improve the efficiency of an organization’s conversion processes so that more value is created Production operations, production control, and quality control Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 1. 2. 

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11 Functions Maintenance functions: enable an organization to keep its departments in operation Personnel, engineering and janitorial services Adaptive functions: allow an organization to adjust to changes in the environment Research and development, market research, and long-range planning Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 3. 4. 

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Managerial Function Managerial function: facilitate the control and coordination of activities within and among departments Top management, middle management, and lower-level management Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 5. 

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Figure 4-2: Building Blocks of Differentiation Organization Division Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Vertical and Horizontal Differentiation = Vertical differentiation: the way an organization designs its hierarchy of authority and creates reporting relationships to link organizational roles and subunits =" Horizontal differentiation: the way an organization groups organizational tasks into roles and roles into subunits (functions and divisions) Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 14 

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Figure 4-3: Horizontal and Vertical Differentiation ge 0 ——| سس i 2 Kitche Dining Room Restaurant = ene foe Seve is ia i =e 7: chet ‏هه‎ vat ‘Busboy ‏لو‎ Other Fikes Janitor) |= موه الا ‎(cupric‏ Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Design Challenge 2 = Balancing Differentiation and Integration = We can’t get people to communicate and coordinate in this organization. Specifying tasks and roles is supposed to help coordinate the work process, but here it builds barriers between people and functions. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 16 

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Balancing Differentiation and Integration = Horizontal differentiation is supposed to enable people to specialize and become more productive. = However, specialization often limits communication between subunits. = People develop subunit orientation. * Subunit orientation: a tendency to view one’s role in the organization strictly from the perspective of the time frame, goals, and interpersonal orientations of one’s subunit Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 17 

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Integration and Integrating Mechanisms = Integration: the process of coordinating various tasks, functions, and divisions so that they work together and not at cross-purposes Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 18 

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Seven Types of Integration Mechanisms i. Hierarchy of authority: “who reports to whom” 2. Direct contact: managers meet face to face to coordinate activities 3. Liaison roles: a specific manager is given responsibility for coordinating with managers from other subunits on behalf of their subunits Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 19 

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Types of Integration Mechanisms Task force: managers meet in temporary committees to coordinate cross-functional activities Teams: managers meet regularly in permanent committees to coordinate activities Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 20 4. 5 

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Integration Mechanisms Integrating role: a new role is established to coordinate the activities of two or more functions or divisions Integrating department: a new department is created to coordinate the activities of functions or divisions Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 21 6. 

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Examples of Integrating Mechanisms Integration Mechantem Gn order of increasing, Example (2.8. im Johnson & Johnson) Salesperson reports co Diaper Division sales manager Diaper Division sales and ‘manufacturing managers ‏اوعدت مد هد عم‎ A person from ench ‏که‎ ‎production, marlesing, and ‏و و مسر‎ departments Is given respon- Sibiliey for coordinacing wich A.commictes is formed co find ew ways to recycle diapers. A permanent J8 committee is Srtablished to promote new product develapment in che Biaper Division One manager takes rexpansi- bility for coordinacing Diaper and Baby Soap divisions to enhance their marketing setiviel Avteam of managers is creaced te take responsibility for co- ordinauing Jae cencralizacion program to allow divisions Co chare skills and resources. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 22 Beseripeion A ranking of employs Ineograves by specifying who reporce co whorr. Managers mest face-to-face ‘io coordinate actividies A specific manager #2 given Teaponallilicy for coord: ‏جه سس بون ماسم‎ Scher subunits om behalf Of hie or her subunie. Managers moet in temporary ‘committees vo coordinate ‏بصن زا ام امه‎ Managers meet regularly in ESordinate ncdwces Anew role is established to Coordinage the actvities of ewo or more functions ‘or divisions. Avnew department is created to coordinate the activites of functions or divisions. complexity) Hicrarchy of auchowiy Direce contact ع سف Task force Team Incegrating rate Incegraing deparement 

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Figure 4-5: Integrating Mechanisms i Wek Foe oe سس ‎(mee |‏ ‎Cae | i? (‏ ‎Mane ۳۵‏ مه ‎fe 52‏ تا ‎Ge‏ ‏= ‏5 ‏۸ ‎oy‏ ‎sett‏ Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Balancing Differentiation and Integration = Managers facing the challenge of deciding how and how much to differentiate and integrate must do two things: 1. Carefully guide the process of differentiation so that it develops the core competences that give the organization a competitive advantage 2. Carefully integrate the organization by choosing appropriate integrating mechanisms that allow subunits to cooperate and that build up the organization’s core competences Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 24 

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Design Challenge 3 = Balancing Centralization and Decentralization = People in this organization don’t take responsibility or risks. They are always looking to the boss for direction and supervision. As a result, decision making is slow and cumbersome, and we miss out on a lot of opportunities to create values. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 25 

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Balancing Centralization and Decentralization = Centralization versus decentralization of authority = Centralized: organizational setup whereby the authority to make important decisions is retained by top level managers = Decentralized: an organizational setup whereby the authority to make important decisions is delegated to managers at all levels in the hierarchy Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Balancing Decision-Making Authority = Decisions about how to distribute decision-making authority in an organization change as the organization grows and differentiates = Balancing authority is an ongoing managerial task. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 27 

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Design Challenge 4 = Balancing Standardization and Mutual Adjustment = People in this organization pay too much attention to the rules. Whenever | need somebody to satisfy an unusual customer request or need real quick service from another function, | can’t get it because no one is willing to bend or break the rules. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 28 

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Balancing Standardization and Mutual Adjustment Standardization: conformity to specific models or examples that are considered proper in a given situation Mutual adjustment: the compromise that emerges when decision making and coordination are evolutionary processes and people use their judgment rather than standardized rules to address a problem Formalization: the use of written rules and procedures to standardize operations Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 29 

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Balancing Standardization and Mutual Adjustment = Socialization = Rules: formal, written statement that specify the appropriate means for reaching desired goals = Norms: standards or styles of behavior that are considered acceptable or typical for a group of people = Socialization: the process by which organizational members learn the norms of an organization and internalize these unwritten rules of conduct Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 30 

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31 Standardization versus Mutual Adjustment = Challenge facing managers is to find a way of using rules and norms to standardize behavior = However, at the same time, managers need to allow for mutual adjustment to give managers opportunity to discover new and better ways to achieve goals. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Mechanistic and Organic Organizational Structures =" Mechanistic structures: structures which are designed to induce people to behave in predictable, accountable ways " Organic structures: structures which promote flexibility, so people initiate change and can adapt quickly to changing conditions Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 32 

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Figure 4-6: Mechanistic and Organic Structures Organle structures result when an ‘organization makes theso eholcos. ‘Joint specialization Eployes work together and cootdnatatheir ations to find the best wy ofparfoming atask ‎rtegrating echanisrs‏ اتود ‎Teck ores end ean arethomajorintotting‏ ‎mechanisms.‏ ‏موق > ‎Athy to conrltasks delegated to people a ‎alles inthe oganzaton. Most crumurvestion ‘slater, ‎+ MutualAgustment FEdensivouse smadeof{ace-tofaracontactio cooxnattashs, and narkprocessisrletiely unpredictable. ‎Mechanistle sbuctures result when an ‘organkzation makos those cholecs, ‎* Indhidual pectaztion Employeesworkseparatelyandspediaizeinone ‘eer ‏ههد‎ ‎«Simple rtegrating Mechanisms Horarcty ofaxthorty coal datinod andi the major iegrating mechani, ‎+ enaliation |Authoryto contol tas is kept atthe top ofthe tgerizaton. Mostcommunicationis vial ‎+ Standanzation ‎FEdensive uses adeaftulasand S0Pstacoorcnate ‎‘asks, and woikprocess sprecitable. ‎Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 33 ‎ 

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Figure 4-7: Task and Role Relationships A. Individual Specialization in a B, Joint Specialization in an Organic ‘Mechanistic Structure. A person in ‘Structure. A person in a role is 8 role specializes in a specific task assigned to a specific task or set or set of tasks. of tasks. However, the person is able to learn new tasks and develop new skills and capabilites. ۱ ۵۵ I Tasks Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 34 

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Contingency Approach = A management approach in which the design of an organization’s structure is tailored to the sources of uncertainty facing an organization = Organization should design its structure to fit its environment. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 35 

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36 hose Fit Organization and Its Environment Poor Fit or Orgzization 1 Environment ۳ Degree oft Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Differentiation, Integration, and the Environment = Investigated how companies in different industries differentiate and integrate their structures to fit the environment = Three industries that experienced different levels of uncertainty: 1 The plastics industry < The food-processing industry ‎The container or can-manufacturing‏ د ‎industry‏ ‎Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall ‎ 

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38 Findings: Lawrence and Lorsch = When environment is perceived as more unstable and uncertain: = Effective organizations are less formalized, more decentralized and rely more on mutual adjustment. = When environment is perceived as stable and certain: = Effective organizations have a more centralized, standardized, and formalized structure: Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Differentiation and Integration Degree of Uncertainty Food-Processing Yariable Plastics Industry Industry ۳ ‏هن‎ ‎Uncertainty (complexity dari, richness) Heh Moderate Low —— Structural Variables Departmental dlifereniation Heh Moderate Low Cross-unctionl ‏سم‎ ‎integration ‏و‎ Moderate Low Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 39 

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40 Burns and Stalker = Also found that organizations need different kinds of structure to control their activities based on the environment * Unstable and changing environment: Organic structures are more effective = Stable environment: Centralized, formalized and standardized characteristic of mechanistic structures are more effective Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 

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Environmental Uncertainty and Structure ‘Simple sbucture ‘Complexstructure Low dfferentiation High diferertiaion Lowintegration High intogation Decentralized decision mating Mutual adjustment Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 41