شیمی‌ آلی

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General Chemistry M. R. Naimi-Jamal Faculty of Chemistry Iran University of Science & Technology 

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ارزشیابی غیبت مجاز: ۳/۱۷ کل ساعت درسی 

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:فصل اول 

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[EMISTRY: emistry is the study of the properties, compos d structure of matter, the physical and chemic anges it undergoes, and the energy liberated c sorbed during those changes. مم | ۱۳ 

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Why Study Chemistry? 1. To better understand the world: what it is made of and how it works. 2. Because it is the most practical and relevant of the sciences - chemistry is the study of EVERYTHING! 3. It is the “Central Science” - All other sciences intersect at and depend on chemistry. 4. It is essential to the national and local economies. 5. It is required for virtually every major involving Science mathematics oar 

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Chemistry is an Observational Science >» Observation: Using the five senses to “see” what is and happens around you. >» Conclusion: An explanation of the cause or causes for one or more observations. 

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Observations vs. Conclusions OBSERVATION: * When electricity is passed through a salt solution, a yellow-green gas and a colorless, flammable gas forms. CONCLUSION: ¢ The yellow-green gas is chlorine and the colorless gas is hydrogen. 

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1. Collect Facts or Data (Observe!!) 2. Search for Generalizations or Laws to Summarize the Facts. 3. Freely Use Your Imagination to Construct Theories or Models of Nature that Will Account for the Laws. 4. Test Theories/Hypotheses for Accuracy. 5. Modify Theories/Hypotheses as Necessary Based on Your Test Results. 

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ماده و انرژی واحد های بین المللی ‎SI‏ ‏عدم قطعیت و ارقام معنی دار آنالين ابعادى 

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ماده ‎(Matter)‏ :20 فضا اشغال مى كندء جرم واينرسى دارد انرذى 1513816[9) توانايى انجام كار يا توليد حرارت 

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رابطه اینشتین ‎E=me‏ جرم - انرژی 

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The Law of Conservation of Matter: Matter is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction or a physical change. The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction or a physical change. It can only be changed from one form into another. The Law of Conservation of Matter/Energy: The combined amdint of matter and energy in the universe is cmrstant. 

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Solid: has a rigid shape and a fixed volume that changes very little with temperature and pressure Liquid: like solids have a fixed volume but no definite shape (take on the shape of the container) Gas: no fixed volume - volume determined by the size of the container - the volume of a gas varies greatly with temperature and pressure 

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0 (leteroqeurvus| wixtures مساوم لد ووه ات امن سس Gewrute 

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* Substance (16 o) A distinct type of matter. All samples of a substance have the same properties. Elements and compounds are substances. * Mixture J.) A sample of matter consisting of two or more substances which are NOTchemically combined. 

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Classification of Matter (Substa: Substances: ٠ Element: A substance that cannot be broken down (decomposed) into simpler substances by chemical reactions, e.g.: iron, gold, oxygen. es) * Compound: A substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed ratios by mass. Water - H,O Carbon dioxide - CO, Sodium chloride - NaCl Iron(II) sulfide - FeS 

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Classification of Matter (Mixtures) Mixtures: * Homogeneous: A mixture having only one phase; it is uniform (the same) throughout and has the same properties throughout. These are called ,, Solutions”. ‘ Heterogeneous: A mixture with more than one phase. It is non-uniform and does NOT have the same properties throughout. 

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° Phase - A sample of matter that is uniform in composition and physical state and is separated from other phases by a definite boundary. 

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° Physical Change: A change in which each substance involved in the change retains its original identity and no new elements or compounds are formed. Hos) HF ‏ممم‎ 

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* Chemical Change: A change in which one or more elements or compounds (substances) are formed. 2H, (g) + 0. 2 13,0 ۵ AgNO,(aq) + HCl(aq) > AgCl(s) + HNO,(aq) 

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® Okewird ged physicdl chore 

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کروماتو گررافی (Chromatography) 

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Measurement ٠ Chemistry is an Observational science. * Chemistry is a Quantitative science. ° Measurement - A quantitative observation. 

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Measurement All measurements have three parts: 1. A value 2. Uni 26.9762 g 3. An Unce ity Examples: 33.2 mL 72.36 mm 426 kg 31 people 

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Measurement Conversion Factors: A fraction whose numerator and denominator contain the same quantity expressed in different 1 ‏علنص 1 ع 20و باه‎ _ 5280 ft. q 5280 ft 1 mile 1 ‏همس 0.01 د هه‎ icm__9.01m_ 4 0.0im icm ‎2-54cm__1lin —‏ مين 2.54 د ص11 ‎1in 2.54 cm‏ 

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Measurement Uncertainty in Measurements: Exact Measurements: Measured values determined by counting or when a value is defined. Examples: 31 people, 27 rocks, 2.54 cm = lin The uncertainty in these measurements = 0 Non-exact Measurements: All other measurements. The last digit recorded is uncertain; it is estimated!! Examples: 27.5g, 32.7mm 12 467 km 

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Measurement Significant Figures: ‏اریقام‎ ‏معنی‌ار‎ Each digit obtained as a result of a measurement includes all of the certain digits and the first uncertain digit. The number of significant figures in a measurement is an indicator of the sensitivity of the measurement. 

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Measurement Rules for Significant Figures: ‘ All non-zero digits are significant. 25.79 km 27 mL / A zero between other significant figures is significant. 207.9 nm 100.7 mL 

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Measurement v Initial zeros are NOT significant: J 0.001 23 cm? v Final zeros after the decimal point ARE significant: 23.100 ps v Final zeros in a measurement with no decimal point may or may not be significant. 3200 cm (might have 2, 3, ord significant figures!!) v Exact measurements have an infinite number of 

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Measurement Count from left from first non-zero digit. Significant Figures 3 3 2 2 infini bad notation Number 6.29 g 0.00348 g 9.0 1.0 x 10% 100 eggs 100 g 

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(Rounding Off) ‏ردن‎ 5 ۹ Report to 3 significant figures: 10.235 > 10. 12.4790 > 2 19.75 > 12. 15.639 2 5 7.025 > 19. Note: 3rd digit is increas@d.by one if Ath digit >5 and decyeased to zero if 4th digit <5. If 4th digit is =5, 3rd/dWjit is increased only if it is!an odd number! 

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لت محاسبات رياضى iding and subtracting: se the number of decimal places in the number with | west decimal places. 11.676 + 1.14 + 0.6 13.416 ۵4 35.2 mL + 0.34 mL = 3854 mL = 35.5 mL 1.00794 ۲ + 1.490 ۰ + 15.9992/4 <- 4 u= 18.497 u 

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لت محاسبات رياضى Multiplying and dividing: Use the fewest significant figures. 4 3 0.01208 + 0.236 = 0.51186 = 5.12 x 107 (9.5760 g)/(12.2 mL) = 0.285 g/mL 5 

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‎cre slowly‏ ال ‏جرم کیلوگرم ‎Kg‏ ‏طول متر ‎m‏ ‏زمان ‎al‏ 5 جریان ‎dy‏ آمپر ‎A‏ ‏دما کلوین ‎K‏ ‏شدت درخشش شمع ‎ed.‏ ‏مقدار ماده مول ‎mol‏ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ 

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Derived Quantities Force Newton N=kgm s2 Pressure Pascal Pa=kgm 1g2 Eenergy Joule [ - ‏تس وكا‎ ‎Common Units‏ عطقي ‎Length Angstrom A=10%cm‏ ‎Volume Litre L= 103 m3 Energy Calorie cal = 4.184 J Pressure Atmosphere 1 atm = 1.064x 10? kPa ‎= 760 mm Hg 

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EIB دكا دسى سانتى ميكرو ELBE 8 | | ۵ ایب رد استفاده 195 10° 103 10 107 102 103 106 105 10 1 1 1۷8 - 1106 1 16 - 1103 1 dm = 1x10'm 

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Properties of Matter * Extensive Properties (cjbiawols): Properties that depend on the amount of matter present in a sample. Mass Volume Heat Capacity * Intensive Properties ( jsitwols): Properties that do NOT depend on the amount of matter present in a sample. Color Temperature Density Melting Point Specific Heat Boiling Point 

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Temperature an ermal Energy Temperature: A measure of _ the “hotness”and “coldness” of an object; a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules of the object. The higher the temperature, the more kinetic energy the atoms and/or molecules Wavemal Energy: Often called “heat”, it is the form of energy toward which all other forms tend to go. 

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emperature) |, @ 0 

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2۴ 0 Weter boils 0 & g 98,6۴ 8 Normal body temperature 8 327۴ ۲ Water freezes Fahrenheit scale I 100°C 4 — z 8 8 3 37.00 3 8 8 ۱ wet Kelvin scale Celsius scalo 973 K 310K 273K 

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این مقیاس به افتخار گایربل دانبل فارنهایت که دماسنج جیوه‌ای را اختراع کرد نامگذاری شده‌است. براساس مقاله‌ای که در ۱۷۲۶ توسط او نوشته شده. مقیاس او براساس سه نقطه پلیه گذاری شده‌است. نقطه اول دمای مخلوط یک به یک لب ویخ و نشادر است که به عنوان صفر در نظر گرفته شده‌است. نقطه بعدی دمای مخلوط یک یه یک لب خللص و یخ است و نقطه سوم دمای بدن انسان. فارنهلیت بعد از مشاهده فاصله لین نقاط از هم به لين نتيجه رسيد كه فاصله نقطه ذوب یخ خللص و یخ با نشادر نصف فاصله نقطه ذوب یخ خالص از دمای بدن است. پس برای سادگی تقسیم بندی بین این نقاط فاصله‌ها را به دو مقدار ۳۲ قسمتی و ۶۴ قسمتی تقسیم نمود که با نصف کردن چند باره فاصله‌ها امکان پذیر است. پس در مقیاس او دمای ذوب یخ خالص برابر با ۳۲ و دمای بدن برابر با ۹۶ درجه(۳۲+۶۴) اندازه گیری شد. فارنهایت مشاهده کرد که آب با مقیاس تغییراتی دادند تا نقطه ذوب یخ دقیقا ۳۲ درجه و دمای جوش آن ۲ درجه در نظر گرفته شود و فاصله آنها ۱۸۰ واحد باشد. به خاطر همین تغییرات دمای بدن انسان در این مدل حدود ‎VA‏ درجه به دست آمد. مقیاس در ۲۱۲ درجه به جوش می‌آید. بعدها دانشمندان در این 

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تبديل واحدهاى دما کلوین به سانتی گراد: 5 +0 از فارنهایت به سانتی گراد: 0 ۳-32 ۲ 0 180 Note: K andnot °K 

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ample Caiculations involving Titty! 0 Example: Convert 73.6 °F to Celsius and Kelvin temperatures. °C = (5/9) (CF - 32) K=°C + 273.15 NG (5/9)(73.6 °F - 32) )5/9( 4 18(1 K 23.1°C + 273.15 296.3 K 

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3 باه 107-۱ مج 

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Stopcock, avalve to control the liquid flow Buret Pipet Volumetric flask Graduated cylinder 

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Dimensional Analysis ow many meters are in each of the following? 21 km 1023570 um (21 km)QL x 103m) < 21 ۶ 10321 x 104m (1023570 pany ( im __ 3.023570 m (10° ud 

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Sample Calculations Involving Volumes How many mL are in 3.456 L? ‎mL. 3456 mL‏ هت ‎How many uL are in 23.7 cm? ‎foe mS ‏بل 1 )101 ل‎ ) at m*) (10 ‎x 104 pL‏ 2.37 ۱۶ م0( ک 

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Dimensional Analysis How many mL are in 3.0 ft’? 1 ft = 12 in1 in = 2.54 cni cm’ = 1 mL ( )12 1(( ‏(ص12)‎ )22 in\(2.54 ecm) (2.54 cm) (254 cm) (1 )1 ۶( 01۶۵ CNt) \1 in) (Nn) \ (Nn) = 8.5 x 10* mL How many ns are in 23.8 s? (23.8 Dag ape x 10°ns = 2.38 ۶ 1010 8 

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1۷۲۵95 2: ۷۲ ass: the measure of the quantity or amount of atter in an object. The mass of an object does ange as its position changes. Mass is measured using a BALANCE. ight: A measure of the gravitational attractio: earth for an object. The weight of an object nges with its distance from the center of the « Weight is measured using SCALES. 

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Sample Calculations Involving Masses ¢ How many yg are in 2.56 kg? 39 sO CED 2-56 x 10° pg * How many g are in 2.578 x 10" ng? : 1 (2.578 x ‏تا‎ ۲ a 2578 g 

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(9 04 - ۷ unit: commonly g/mL m = Vd V = m/d Mass and volume are extensive properties Density is an intensive property 

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What is the density of a cubic block of wood that is 2.4 cm on each side and has a mass of 9.57 g? volume = [2.4 cm x 2.4 cm x 2.4 cm]= 13.8 cm? density = (9.57 g)/(13.8 cm?) = 0.69 g/cm’ = 0.69 g/mL Note again: 1 cm? = 1 mL 

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What is the mass of a cube of osmium that is 1.25 inches on each side? Density is 22.48g/cm3 (converts in. toem) (converts cm to cm3) (converts cm? to g osmium) = 719 g osmium 1 نجوه و 48 22 2 ‎osmium‏ ع 2248 پر ‎osmium 2 all‏ ع 7 len? 

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۱092۰۱۵2۱۰۸۸۹ 8 pic ۰ Systematic errors - Thermometer constantly 2°C too low. ° Random errors - Limitation in reading a scale. ° Precision - Reproducibility of a measurement. « - How close to the real value. 

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=i ‏صحت و دقت در اندازه گیر‎ ا صحت به معنای درستى و به دست آوردن مقدار واقعى در یک اندازه گیری لا دقت به معنای نزدیک بودن مقدارها در چند بار اندازه گیری لا دقت خوب Sees i الا دقت خوب الا صحت بد لا دقت بد 

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Chapter 1, Questions 3,5, 12, 14, 17, 30, 38, 43, 49, 59, 60