نظریه اتمی دالتون

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gure 1-7 | John Dalton (1766-1844), an Englishman, began teaching at a Quaker school when he was 12. His fascination with scence Included an intense interest in meteo- rology, which led to an interest in the gases of the air and their ultimate components, atoms. Dalton ‏عا‎ best known for his atomic theory, in which he postulated that the funda mental differences among atoms are thelr masses. He was the first to prepare a table of relative atomic weights. Dalton was @ humble man with several apparent disabilities: He was not articulate and he was color-blind, a terrible problem for a chemist. Despite these disadvantages, he helped to revolutionize the science of chemistry. 1 Finnigan 

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نظریه اتمی دالتون -در زمان دالتون می دانستند که آب از اکسیژن و هیدروژن تشکیل شده است و به ازاء هر 8 گرم اکسیژن 1 گرم هیدروژن مصرف می شود. -بثابراین بر پایه زاين فرمن که تطبیعت:جن:جد امکان:ساده نت او جرم هیدروژن را 1 و جرم اکسیژن را 8 فرض د. -بر پایه همین استدلال برای ترکیب های دیگر اولین جدول جرمهای اتمی را تهیه کرد. -بعداً مشخص شد که جرمهای بسیاری از اتمها اشتباه است اما تهیه اولین جدول جرمها یک مرحله به جلو بود. -اگر چه تا سالها نظر دالتون پذیرفته نشد, اما کلید تعيين فرمول مشخص ترکیبها با کار تجربی شیمیدان فرانسوی . ‎Gaylussac (1778-1850)‏ وبا فرضیه یک ‏اه ایتاپبایی به نام )1776-1856( ‎A. Avogadro‏ ‎1۳020 ‎ 

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نظریه اتمی دالتون در سال 1809 گیلوساک آزمایش هایی انجام داد که در آنها او (در شرایط دما و فشار یکسان) حجم گازهایی که با یکدیگر واکنش می دهند را اندازه گیری کرد. << در سال 1811 آووگادرو اين نتایج را اینگونه تفسیر کرد که در یک دما و فشار, حجم های مساوی از گازهای مختلف شامل همان تعداد ذره هستند. < این فرض (که فرضیه آووگادرو نامیده شد) منطقی می نمود اگر فاصله بین ذرات در یک گاز در مقایسه با اندازه ذرات بسیار پیشتر باشد. متأسفانه تفسیرهای آووگادرو مورد قبول اکثر شیمیدانهاواقع نشد. و نصف قرن گیجی بر جامعه شیمیدانها حاکم بود که در آنها فرض های مختلفی برای توجیه واقعیات ارائه می شد. 3 Thermo Finnigan 

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اندازه گیری حجم گازها «Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac a French plysicist and chemist, was remarkably versatile though ets now known primarily forhis studies onthe combining of vlumes of gases, a Lusacwas instrumental inthe tues of many ofthe other properties of gases Some of Gay-Lusscs motivation to lear about gases arose from hs passin forbllooning. Infact he made ascents to heights of over mils to collec air samples, setingaitude records that stood fr about 50 years Gay-Lussac also was the codiscoverer of boron and the developer af proces for manufacturing sufuic acid. Ascieassayer ofthe French mint, Gay-Lussa developed many techniques fr chemical analysis ad invented many ‘ypescf glassware now used routine in abs, Gay Lussacspethis st 20 years sa ] government. Thermo Finnigan 

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فرضیه اووگادرو volumes hydogen combines ۱ volume oxygen to form 2 volumes gaseous water 2. | volume hydrogen combines with I volume chlorine to form 2 volumes hydrogen chide 5 Thermo Finnigan 

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نظریه اتمی دالتون ۶ در جریان قرن نوزدهم, اندازه گیری های دقیقی روی عناصر مختلف انجام شد که منجر به ترکیبها مختلف می شد. از.وی این آزمایشها لمستن از جرم های اتمی نسبی می توانست بدست آید . یکی از شیمیدانهای درگیردر این قضیه -1779) 3۲62611115 .[ .ل (1848 بود که عناصر 51 ‎٩6,‏ .6) و 1 را کشف کرد و سمبل های جدیدی برای عناصر استفاده شده در نوشتن فرمول ترکیبها را توسعه داد 7 تمرین های 1 و 2 را حل کنید. 6 Thermo Finnigan 

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جرمهای اتمی برزیلیوس The Alchemists! Symbols for Some Common Elements and Compounds ۷ sts = ‏ال‎ اه هو Thermo Finnigan 

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آزمایشهای اولیه برای توصیف اتم ظ اساس کار دالتون, گیلوساک, آووگادرو و سایرین شیمی داشت احساس می شد! مفهوم اتمها کاملاً ایده خوبی بود. بدون تردید محققینی شروع کردند که به طبیعت اتمها فکر کنند یک اتم از چه ساخته شده است و چگونه اتمهای عناصر مختلف فرق دارند؟ ۶ اولین آزمایشهای مهمی که منجر به درک اجزاء اتم شد آزمایش محقق انگلیسی م۳ .لد بود. 8 Thermo Finnigan 

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Figure 1-10 | J.J. Thomson (1956- 1940) was an English physicist at Cambridge University. He received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1906. 9 Finnigan 

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لوله اشعه کاتدی Sour of ltl oem Siam of eating penis (eaten) . ‘cathode ray tbe. The fast moving electronseacit the gas inthe tube causing a low between the electrodes. The geen color in the patois du tothe response of the screen (coated with zinc sulfide to the electron beam. 10 Thermo Finnigan 

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| Deflection of cathode rays by an applied electric field. fears clon where e represents the charge on the electron in coulombs (C) and m represents the electron mass in grams. Thermo Finnigan 

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لوله اشعه کاتدی > تامسون فرض کرد که تابش, جریانی از ذرات با بار منفی می باشد که حالا آلکترون نامیده می شود. ۶ - او استدلال کرد که چون الکترونها می توانند از الکترودهایی که از انواع فلزات تهیه می شوند. ساطع شود لذا تمام اتمها باید دارای الکترون باشند. * چون اتمها از لحاظ الکتریکی خنثی بودند تامسون فرض کرد که اتمها ‎ub‏ دارای مقداری بار مثبت باشند. 12 Thermo Finnigan 

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Spherical cloud of positive charge StockFoxd/Goty images 4 Aclassic English plum pudding, in which the raisins represent the distribution of electrons in the atom. The plum pudding model of the atom. 13 Thermo Finnigan 

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در سل ۱۹۰۹ راپرت میلیکان (۱۹۵۲-۱۸۲۸) که در دنشگاه شیکاگو کار می کردآزمایشهای متهورانه ای انجام داد و توانست مقدار پا لکترون را اداژهگیری کند. 1 هسیر wos 3 595 دده اا لله ۳ اعم ‎Mion‏ ‏مس ‏ماس ‎hee‏ @)A schematic representation ofthe apparatus Millikan used to determine the <charge.on the electron. The fll of charged oll droplets due to gravity can be halted by adjusting the voltage across tha two plates. This voltage andthe mass ofthe oll drop can then be uted to calculate ‘the charge on the of drop. milikan’s experiments showed that the charge on an oll drop is aways ‘hiole-number multiple ofthe electron charge. (b) Robert Milikan using his apparatus. 14 Thermo Finnigan 

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0 م ‎et ete Td‏ » X-rays knock ۱ x Cea ‏وین‎ ‎Bote coy Cena ee Prete me 7 0 م1 متقدمك مامتومه 00د ممنادجس كمومه معجة بوررعوقه 9 

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In 1909, the American physicist Robert Millikan (1868-1953) measured the charge of the electron. He did so by observing the movement of tiny droplets of the “highest grade clock oil” in an apparatus that contained electrically charged plates and an x-ray source (Figure 2.5. next page). X-rays knocked electrons from gas molecules in the air, and as an oil droplet fell through a hole in the positive (upper) plate, the electrons stuck to the drop. giving it a negative charge. With the electric field off. Millikan measured the mass of the droplet from its rate of fall. By fuming on the field and varying its strength. he could make the drop fall more slowly, rise, or pause suspended. From these data, Millikan calculated the total charge of the droplet. ‘After studying many droplets, Millikan calculated that the various charges of the droplets were always some whole-number multiple of a minimum charge. He reasoned that different oil droplets picked up different numbers of electrons. so this minimum charge must be that of the electron itself. The value. which he cal- culated around 100 years ago. is within 1% of the modern value of the electron’s 16 Thermo Finnigan 

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۱ for coulomb, the ST unit of charge). Using the electron’s mass/charge ratio from work by Thomson and others and this value for the electron’s charge. let’s calculate the electron’s exiremely small mass the way Millikan did: mass —1.602x10~"e) Mass of electron charge = (-s 686x10~ 6 charge = 9.109K 107 kg = 9.109x10-78 g 17 Thermo Finnigan 

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۶ در اواخر قرن نوزدهم محققین علوم کشف کردند که بعضی عناصر تابش های پرانرژی تولید می کنند. برای مثال در سال 6 محقق فرانسوی اسسحب9) .1 بطور تصادفی کشف کرد که یک قطعه سنگ معدن حاوی اورانیم می تواند تصویرش را روی صفحه عکاسی در عدم حضور نور ظاهر کند. ۶ او اين پدیده را به یک بشر تابش خودبخودی توسط اورانیم نسبت داد که او آن را رادیو اکتیونیه نامید. ۶ مطالعات اوایل قرن بیستم سه نوع بشر رادیو را نشان دادند: ۲ تابش گاما (۷) , ذرات بتا ( 8) و ذرات آلفا (0) ۶ یک ‎LU gin‏ "نور" پرانرژی است؛ یک ذره 8 یک الکترون پر سرعت می باشد؛ و یک ذره 0 دارای بار +2 می باشد. ظ جرم یک ذره 0,۳60 برابر جرم یک الکترون می باشد. 18 Thermo Finnigan 

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Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) was born ona farm in New Zealand. In 1895 he placed second ina scholarship competition to attend Cambridge University but was awarded the scholarship when the winner decided to stay home and get married. As a scientist in England, Rutherford did much of the early work on characterizing radioactivity. He named the a and f particles and the yay and coined the term haff-ife to describe an important attribute of radioactive elements. His experiments on the behavior of a particles striking thin metal foils led him to postulate the nuclear atom. He also invented the name proton for the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. He received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1908. 19 Finnigan 

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Some at particles Most particles ae scattered pass straight through fil Source of Beam of particles Screen to detect Thin seatiered particles metal fil Rutherford’s experiment on a:partcle bombardment of metal fil 20 Thermo Finnigan 

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۳ Diffuse o The expected results ofthe metal fil ‘Actual results, ‘experiment sf Thomson’ mode! were correct. (a) The expected results of the metal foil experiment if Thomson's model were correct. (b) Actual results, 21 Thermo Finnigan 

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نگاه جدید به ساختار اتم ۶ در فکر راترفورد اين نتلیج تنها می توانست برحسب یک هسته اتمی توضیح داده شود. < ساده ترین تصویر از انم ‎cowl gal‏ که آن شامل یک هسته کوچک (پا قطر حدود 12*10 سج) و الکترونها که در اطراف هسته با یک فاصله تقریبی 10* «ماز آن حرکت 22 Thermo Finnigan 

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نگاه جدید به ساختار اتم ‘Nucleus ‘The Mass and Charge of the Electron, Proton, and Neutron “10% om Electron 9.109 x 10" Ig 1 Proton 1.673 x 10-7 kg. 1+ | Neutron 1675 x 107 kg None 0 *The magnitude ofthe charge ofthe electron and the protons 160x10-%C. Anuclear atom viewed in cross section, Note that this drawing isnot to scale. 23 Thermo Finnigan 

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نگاه جدید به ساختار اتم If the atomic nucleus were the size of this ball bearing, a typical atom would be the size of this stadium. 24 Finnigan 

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نگاه جدید به ساختار اتم ۶ همانطور که در آینده نشان خواهیم داد شیمی یک انم عمدتا ناشی از الکترونهای آن می باشد. به همین دلیل می توان با یک مدل هسته ای نسبتاً نیم بند هم دل پست. * فرض می شود که هسته شامل پروتونها که یک باز مصبت مساوى با بار منفى الكترون دارند و نوترونها كه اساسا جرمى برابر با يروتون داوند ولى بان ندارند. << دانسيته بسيار زياد هسته را مى توان اينكونه تعريف كرد كه در حقيقت يى قطعه از هسته ماده با اندازه حدود يى يسته جرمى در حدود 25 ميليون تن دارد. > سئوالی که در اینجا می توان مطرح کرد این است که اگر تمام اتمها از چنین اجزايي درست شده اند چرا اتمهای مختلف خواص شیمیایی متفاوتی دارند؟ 25 Thermo Finnigan 

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ظ جواب به این سئوال به تعداد و آرایش الکترونها تکیه دارد. ۶ الکترونها عمده حجم ‎rail‏ را تشکیل می دهند و به همین دلیل آنها آن قسمتهائی هستند که وقتی اتمها برای تشکیل مولکولها به هم تردیکبهی نوتجا تگدرگن "ورمی آمیرته۱۳ > بنابراین تعداد الکترونهائی که یک ‎pil‏ دارد شدیدا روی توانائی ‎ol‏ برای کنش با اتمهای دیگر تاثیر می گذارد ۶ در نتیجه, اتمهای عناصر مختلف, که دارای تعداد متفاوتی پروتون و الکترون هستند رفتار شیمیائی متفاوتی نشان می دهند. 26 Thermo Finnigan 

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۵ where the alomde number 7 (numer of proton) i weten aca scrip, andthe umber iggggy ‏لوقصم سمو‎ (he totl numberof pots and ‏عر ستيه عد ماشه ع ميمه‎ siete Soe, Phe particu sto represented heres called “Schum twenty thr” I hes 11 ole ‏اه‎ trons 1 protons and 12 neutrons) <@ Beceuse the chemistry ofan atom ide 1 وا ی سح و 3 سس aN fiNa Two sotopesof sau. doth have M protons a ‘elecwors, butte fern the ‘number ofreetion nthe mace Thermo Finnigan 

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An atom of uranium-235 28 Thermo Finnigan Co 0 +>م52 12600 An atom of uranium-238 

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روش علمی Neutral sodium atom (Na) Sodium ion (Na*) 1+ ——Minus | electron —> ۱۱+ 1electrons 1 electrons Na —> Na’ +e 29 Thermo Finnigan 

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Chloride ion 5 Neutral chlorine atom (Cl) lus | electron——> 17 electrons 18 electrons حون جبب + Thermo Finnigan 

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ایزوتویهای عناصر و طیف سنج جرمی @ ttre rete ‏سس‎ عم مه ماع 5 jo و ۱ و وس و 000 md magne gon a 31 Thermo Finnigan 

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جرم اتمى عناصر ۶ اجازه دهید ببینیم چگونه از داده های بدست آمده ازدستگاه طیف سنج جرمی اطلاعات کلیدی بگیریم. يا استفادة از ُکتوستگاه ظیفنتیج بچرمی ها ‎capi‏ ‏جرمی مثلا 000 را نسبت به 400 به دست آوریم. 32 Thermo Finnigan 

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جرم اتمى عناصر Mass of ‏اه زج‎ 534443 Mass of 5C standard From this mass ratio, we find the isotopic mass of the **Si atom, the mass of the isotope relative to the mass of the standard carbon-12 isotope: Teotopic mass of Si = measured mass ratio % mass of 136 = 2.331411 x 12 amu = 2797693 amu Along with the isotopic mass, the mass spectrometer gives the relative abun- dance (fraction) of each isotope in a sample of the element. For example, the per~ cent abundance of “Si is 92.23%, Such data allow us to calculate the atomic mass (also called a‘omic weight) of an element, the average of the masses of its namrally occurring isotopes Weighted according to their abundances. Each naturally occurring isotope of an element contributes a certain portion to the atomic mass, For instance. as just noted, 92.23% of Si atoms are “*Si, Using this percent abundance as a fraction and multiplying by the isotopic mass of **Si gives the portion of the atomic mass of Si contributed by 7*Si Portion of Si atomic mass from 7*Si = 27.97603 anu: x 0.9223 = 25.8031 am Getaining nwo additional significant figures) Similar calculations give the pertions contributed by “Si (28.976495 amu x 0.0467 = 1.3532 amu) and by *°Si (29.973770 amu X 0.0310 = 0.9292 amu), and adding the three portions together (rounding to two decimal places at the end) gives the atomic mass of silicon $031 amu + 1.3532 amu + 0.9292 amu 28.0855 amu = 26.09 amu Atomic mass of Si = 33 Thermo Finnigan 

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جرم اتمى میانگین FERED cect aici fn Ene Problem Ses (Ag: 2» 4) bs 4 kaon topes bit oly v0 oer atl Way sol ™Ag Gina te filloving ns spectonere dt, eal th stoi mus ofA ‎Massjamu) Abundance)‏ مووایا ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎yy 19690809 su Way 189075 4816 Plan Frm he mas and shane ofthe reo Agitopes, we lve to find the atomic ‏هم‎ | aus of Ag (veined serge ofthe ‏نومه‎ ass). We rmply ‏اوه توس نم‎ is aia sundae to fad he pote ofthe tne as cotibud by ech 5 ‏مه هو بوي‎ ge Th ante prowi eabs ‏شرس اف‎ Sabin Fig prt of edie msn eho: ‏بيه ممم سور‎ Ro eee ‏لطم‎ | > 10590509 ‏)ا ناضة‎ 05184 * 5542 aaa 5 ite poe Poria of aomis as fa "A: = 1059076 amu x 0-816 = 32.48 ann oo) Finding the atemis mass of silver: ‎‘Atom mass, | ‏اه مه معط‎ Ag = $542 ami + S245 amu = 10787ame ‎ ‎Thermo Finnigan 

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تعیین ترکیب در صد ایزوتویی FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 25 Boron (B: 2 = 5) bas to naturally occuring isotopes Find the percent abundances of ‏لو و زا‎ the atomic mass of B = 10.81 amu, tito ms of"3 = 10129 amu, andthe tos mss of B= 110983 am, (Hint: The sum of the fractional abundances is 1, If x = abundance of then 1-1 = abmdance of ‏روا‎ 35 Thermo Finnigan 

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اولین نگاه به جدول تناوبی 36 Thermo Finnigan 

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The overwhelming majority of elements occur in chemical combination with other elements. In fact, only a few elements occur free in nature. The noble gases—helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Az), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn)—ocour in air as separate atoms. In addition to occurring in compounds. oxygen (©). nitrogen (N), and sulfur (8) occur in the most common elemental form as the molecules O3, Nz, and Ss, and carbon (C) occurs in vast, nearly pure deposits of coal. Some of the metals. such as copper (Cu). silver (Ag). gold (Au), and platinum (Pt), may also occur uncombined with other elements, But these few exceptions reinforce the general rule that elements occur coms bined in compounds. It is the electrons of the atoms of interacting elements that are involved in compound formation. Elements combine in two general ways: 1, Transferring electrons from the atoms of one element to those of another 0 form ionic compounds (Figure 2.11) 2, Sharing electrons between atoms of different elements to form cova- lent compounds These processes generate chemical bonds, the forces that hold the atoms of ele- ments together in a compound. We'll introduce compound formation next and have much more to say about it in later chapters, 37 Thermo Finnigan 

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قدرت پیوند يونى 2s Attraction increas@silll) = lee ‏هو‎ Factors that influence the strenath of ionic bonding. For jons of a given size, strength of attraction (errows) Increases with higher ionic charge (left 10 ight). For tons of a given charge, strength Of attraction increases with smaller ionic size (bottom to top). 38 Thermo Finnigan 

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۱5۸/۸۳۱۴ ۲8۵۵۱۱ 2 Predicting the lon an Element Forms Problem What monatomic ions do the following elements form? (@) Iodine (Z = 53) (b) Calcium (Z= 20) (©) Aluminum (2 = 13) Plan We use the given Z value to find the element in the periodic table and see whether an clement loses or gains electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose electrons and become positive ions: those in Groups $A, 6A. and 7A gain clections and become negative ions. Solution (a) I~ Iodine (331) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the helogens. Like ay member of this group, it gains 1 eleciron to have the same number as the nearest Group 8A(18) member, in this case s4Xe. (b) Ca’? Calcium (29C2) is a member of Group 2A(2). the alkaline earth metals. Like any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble ‏كمع‎ in this case, ypAr (©) AP* Aluminum (,341) is a metal in the boron family [Group 34(13)] and thus loses 3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas, y9Ne. FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following elements form: (a) 16S: (b) 37Rb; (¢) ssBa? 39 Thermo Finnigan 

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تشکیل یک پیوند کووالانسی 40 Thermo Finnigan 

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1۸ 2۸ 3A 4A 5A 6۸ 7۸ ۸۵ a) 2 (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) ‘i Diatomic molecules 8 Tetratomic molecules ? 1 octatomic molecules 3 P, | Ss 4 Seg 5 6 7 Elements that occur as molecules. 41 Thermo Finnigan 

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کووالانس دارد 

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انواع فرمولهای شیمیائتی Types of Chemical Formulas Ina chemical formula, element symbols and numerical subscripts show the type and number of each atom present in the smallest unit of the substance. There are several types of chemical formulas for a compound: 1, The empirical formula shows the relative number of atoms of each element in the compound. It is the simplest type of formula and is derived from the masses of the component elements. For example. in hydrogen peroxide. there is 1 part by mass of hydrogen for every 16 parts by mass of oxygen. Therefore, the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO: one H atom for every O atom. 2. The molecular formula shows the actua/ number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound. The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO); there are two H atoms and two O atoms in each molecule. A structural formula shows the number of atoms and the bonds benveen then; that is, the relative placement and connections of atoms in the molecule. The structural formula of hydrogen peroxide is H-O—O—H; each H is bonded to an O, and the O's ate bonded to each other Thermo Finnigan 

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نام و فرمول ترکیبهای ‎wig‏ ‘Common Monatomic tons* Charge Formula. Name Anions Cations 8 ۲ 9 5 a hydride te tien 0 Nat vn a chloride Ke cal bromide 00 tm iodide ‏ید‎ silver 2 Sais ea sulfide oF Mg* magnesium Cat calcium ‏حي‎ nitride = an “Listed by charge; those in bolatace a aa ‘are most common. 27 zine oe ‏كنات‎ 3+ art aluminum Thermo Finnigan 

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Neng ay bn Conga Problem Name the ionic compound formed trom the following pairs of elements: (a) Magnesium and nitrogen (b) Iodine and cadmium (©) Strontium and fluorine (@ Sulfur and cesium Plan The key to naming a binary ionic compound is to recognize winch element is the ‘metal and which isthe nonmetal. When in doubt, check the periodic table. We place the cation name first add the sufix ide to the nonmetal root, and place the anion name las. Solution (a) Magnesium is the metal: mir- is the nonmetal ‏:امم‎ magnesium nitride (b) Cadmium is the metal; iad- is the nonmetal root: cadmium iodide (©) Strontium is the metal: fuor- is the nonmetal root: strontium fuoride (Note the spelling is fluoride, not flouride,) (@) Cesium is the metal: suf is the nonmetal root: cesium sulfide FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.7 For the following ionic compounds. give the name and table group number of cach of the elements present: (a) zine oxide; (b) silver bromide: (¢) lithium chloride; (d) aluminum sulfide 45 Thermo Finnigan 

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= ‏عم مر موی و‎ of sont a x Nae goup sone sat nero br, Rte th | da | Bal ‏ده بلس‎ goer fee ow win bo ene cho 5 ‏اناد سناد سيلب بابسا که موه موی‎ 2 | anon Hin Gop TAL} Many transition evens fore we | SA] A | SR] A Geert need om Otto Hay” Gro en. it 9 | ‏دين‎ smparnen wine 2 | 5 ِ ِ 5 1 | | ‏كد‎ | 5 |] 51 5] ] © | 2 jae ‏شلدات 5 سلثلة قاقفة‎ 1 10 ۱ «| it Tat ۷ 20 3 Fe" | ‏و‎ cut 1 | 1 1 ‘sn ۱۳" 1۳ 1 i= sat? | 2 ie ‏رو‎ |e ‘ea Bae |e Pot 46 Thermo Finnigan 

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‎lonic Compounds‏ رهوگ ه جمنجمه وه رم ‎Problem Write empirical formulas for the compounds named in Sample Problem 27. Plan We write the empirical formula by finding the smallest number of each ion that gives the neutral compound. These numbers appear as right subscripts to the element symbol. Solution ‎(a) Mg?* and N? three Mg”* ions (6+) balance two N?~ ions (6-}: MgyNo ‎(b) Ca?* and I”; one Cd?* ion (2+) balances two I” ions (2-): Cdly ‎] and F>: one Sr°* ion (2+) balances two F> ions (2=): SiFy ‎(@ Cs* and S?>; two Cs* ions (2+) balance one 52 CS ‎ ‎ ‎“Compounds of the mercun() fon, such as Ha.Cl,, and peroxides of the alkal metals, such ‘as NazOz, are the only two common exceptions. Their empirical formulas are HgCl and NeO, respectively, ‎47 ‎Thermo Finnigan ‎ 

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یونهای چند ظرفیتی Some Metals That Form More Than One Monatomic lon’ Element lon Formula Systematic Name Common (Trivial) Name Chromium cet hromium(II) ‘hromous crt chromium(III) chromic Cobalt Cot cobalt(II) Cort cobalt(II) Copper cat copper(l) ccuprous crt copper(II) cupric Tron Fe* iron(II) ferrous Fe* iroa(II) fenic Lead Pb?* ۱۸۵0 ‏“كرا‎ ۱۷/7 Mercury ‏"جوا‎ mercury(I) mercurous Hg" mercury(I) mercuric Tia sat tin(ll) stannous ‏“كبرو‎ tin dV) stannic “Listed alphabetically by metal rame; those in boldface are most common, 48 Thermo Finnigan 

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Determining Nomes end Formulas of lnc Compounds ‘of Elements That Form More Than One lon Problem Give the systematic names for the formmules or the formulas for the names of the following compounds: (a, ‏اس‎ Buoride; (b) Cel: (€) ferric oxide: (@) CoS. Solution (a) Tin(Il) is Su*"; fluoride is F. Two F ions balance one Sa’ ion: tin(I!) Buoride is SuF2 (The common name is stannous fluoride.) (b) The anion is I”, iodide, and the formula shows three I~. Therefore, the cation must be Cr’*, chromium(III): Crls is chromiumn(Ilt) iodide, (The common name ‏مم كذ‎ mic iodide.) (© Femric is the common name for iron(II). Fe?*; oxide ion is O°. To balance the ionic charges, the formula of feric oxide is Fe Oy, [The systematic name is iron(l) oxide] (@) The anion is sulfide, S*-, which requires that the cation be Co". The name is ‘sobali() sulfide, FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.9 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the for- rmulas for the names of the following compounds: (a) lead(IV) oxide; (b) CusS: (¢) FeBry (@) meremtie chloride Thermo Finnigan 

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اکسی آنیونها Families of Oxoanions most polyatomic ions are oxo: ions, those in which an element. usually a nonmetal. is bonded to one or more oxygen atoms. There are several families of two or four oxoanions that differ only in the number of oxygen atoms. The following simple naming convention is used with these ions. With two oxoanions in the family: + The ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ave. + The ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -re. For example, $0,2~ is the sulfare ion; SOx is nitrare, and NO> is nitrite. With four oxoanions in the family (usually a halogen bonded to varying ‏سه‎ ‎bers of O atoms). as Figure 2.17 shows ~ is the sulfite ion; similarly, NOs + The ion with most O atoms has the prefix per-. the nonmetal root. and the sufix -are. + The ion with one fewer © atom has just the root and the suffix -are. + The ion with nvo fewer 0 atoms has just the root and the suffix -ite + The ion with least (three fewer) O atoms has the prefix /iyo-, the root, and the suffix -ite 50 Thermo Finnigan 

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یونهای پلی اتمی For example, for the four chlorine oxoanions. ClO, is perehlorare. C103” is chlorate. CIOs is chlorite. CIO™ is Iypochlone Common Polyatomic Tons" Nee ‎chromate‏ همه ‏ند هو ‎peronide‏ ‎Phosphate‏ ‎acetate ‏و‎ ‎imei ‏هه مس ‎phosphate‏ اه ‎igpeceoe ۳ ‏ات ‎chlorate idrogen sulfate ‎pane ‘or biel) ‏هه ها ‎ad‏ ‏تس ‏مس ‏عدم ‎ ‎‘carbonate (or bicarbonate) ‎51 ‎Thermo Finnigan ‎ 

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ترکیبهای یونی هیدراته Hydrated lonic Compounds Ionic compounds called hydrates have a specific number of water molecules associated with each formula unit. In their formulas, this number is shown after a centered dot. It is indicated in the systematic name by a Greek numerical prefix before the word /iydrare. Table 2.6 on the next page shows these prefixes. For example. Epsom salt has the formula MgS0,-7H,0 and the name magnesium sulfate /eptahydate. Similarly, the mineral gypsum has the formula CaSO,:2H,0 and the name calcium sulfate dihydrate. The water molecules, referred to as “waters of hydration.” are part of the hydrate’s structure, Heating can remove some or all of them, leading to a different substance. For example, when heated strongly, blue copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO,°5H,O) is converted to white copper(II) sulfate (CuSO,). 52 Thermo Finnigan 

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ا م 2۰۱0 ۲۱۵۵۶۱۷ 5۸۷/۳۱۶ Containing Polyatomic lons Problem Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas for the names of the ‏وس بو‎ ‏م۵۳‎ —(b) Sodium sulfite —_(¢) Ba(OH),$H,0 . Solution (a) ClO4~ is perchlorate, which has a 1— charge, so the cation must be Fe?*. The name is iron(II) perchlorate. (The common name is ferrous perchlorate.) (b) Sodium is Na*; sulfite is $07”. Therefore, two Na* ions balance one $03?> ion. The formula is Nay$O3. (c) Ba”® is barium; OH” is hydroxide. There are eight (octa-) water molecules in each formule unit. The name is barium hydroxide octahydrate. 53 Thermo Finnigan 

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< تمرینها 3و 4: FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.10 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formu- las for the names of the following compounds: (a) Cupric nitrate trihydrate (b) Zine hydroxide ۲ Ete) JUALIN Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas of lonic Compounds Problem Something is wrong with the second part of each statement. Provide the correct name or formula. (a) Ba(C3H303)) is called barium diacetate (b) Sodium sulfide has the formula (Na)3SO3. (©) Iron(II) sulfate has the formula Fe,(SOq)3. (@) Cesium carbonate has the formula Cs,(CO,). 54 Thermo Finnigan 

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Solution (a) The charge of the Ba** ion nmst be balanced by nvo C3Hy0,~ ions. so the prefix di- is unnecessary. For ionic compounds, we do not indicate the number of ions with numerical prefixes. The comect name is barium acetate. (b) Two mistakes occur here. The sodium ion is monatomic, so it does not require paren theses. The sulfide ion is S*-, not SO,” (called “sulfite”), The correct formula is NaS. (©) The Roman numeral refers to the charge of the ion, not the number of ions in the for- mula. Fe** is the cation, so it requires one $O,°- to balance its charge. The correct for- mula is FeSOy. (a) Parentheses are not required when only one polyatomic ion of a kind is present. The correct formule is CsCOs. FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.11 State why the second part of each statement is incorrect, and correct it: (a) Ammonium phosphate is (NH3)4PO4. (b) Aluminum hydroxide is AIOH3. (©) Mg(HCO3); is manganese(IT) carbonate. (d) Cr(NO3)3 is chromic(II1) nitride. (e) Ca(NO>)> is cadmium nitrate. Thermofinnigan 

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Acid Names from Anion Names Acids are an important group of hydrogen- containing compounds that have been used in chemical reactions for centuries. In the laboratory, acids are typically used in water solution. When naming them and wiriting their formulas, we consider them as anions connected to the number of hydrogen ions (H™) needed for charge neutrality. The two common types of acids are binary acids and oxoacids: 1. Binary acid solutions form when certain gaseous compounds dissolve in water. For example. when gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCI) dissolves in water. it forms a solution whose name consists of the following parts Prefix hydro- + nonmetal root + suffix -ic + separate word acid hydro + chlor = + ie + acid ot hydrochloric acid. This naming pattem holds for many compounds in which hydrogen combines with an anion that has an -ide suffix, 56 Thermo Finnigan 

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2. Oxoacid names are similar to those of the oxoanions. except for two suf- fix changes: + -ate in the anion becomes -ic in the acid ٠ -ite in the anion becomes -ous in the acid The oxoanion prefixes /npo- and per- are kept. Thus, BrO,” is perbromate, and HBr04 is perbromic acid JO) is iodite, and HIO) is iodous acid ۱۸۸۱۲۱۶ ۴8۵۵۱۶۸۷ SPM Determining Names and Formulas of Anions and Acids Problem Name the following anions and give the names and formulas of the acids derive from them: (a) Br: (b) 103: (c) CN: (a) SOq?: () NO>. 57 Thermo Finnigan 

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Solution (a) The anion is bromide; the acid is hydrobromic acid, HBr. (b) The anion is iodate: the acid is indie acid, HIO, (©) The anion is cyanide: the acid is _hydrocyanic acid, HCN. (@) The anion is sulfate: the acid is sulfuric acid, HySOs. (In this case, the suffix is added to the element name sulfia; not to the root, sulf-.) (© The anion is nittite; the acid is nitrous acid, HNO Comment We added tro H* ions to the sulfate ion to obtain sulfuric acid because it has a 2— charge FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.12 Write the formula for the name or name for the formula each acid: (a) chloric acid; (b) HF: (c) acetic acid: (d) sulfurous acid: (e) HBrO. 58 Thermo Finnigan 

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Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds Binary covalent compounds are formed by the combination of two elements. usually noumetals, Several are so familiar, such as ammonia (NH), methane (CHL), and water (HO). that we use their common names, but most are named in a systematic way 1. The element with the lower group number in the periodic table is the first word in the name; the element with the higher group number is the second word. (Exception: When the compound contains oxygen and any of the halogens chlorine, bromine, and iodine, the halogen is named frst.) . If both elements are in the same group, the one with the higher period num- ber is named first . The second element is named with its root and the suffix -ide. . Covalent compounds have Greek numerical prefixes (see Table 2.6) to indicate the number of atoms of each element in the compound. The first word has a prefix only when more than one atom of the element is present: the second word usually has a numerical prefi. 5 5 Thermo Finnigan 

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60 Thermo Finnigan