Motivation

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Motivation Organizational Behavior - Session 7-10 Dr. S. B. Alavi, 2009. 

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Table of Contents * Reinforcement Theory * Equity Theory * Maslow’s Theory * ERG Theory * Two-factor (Hygiene-Motivation) Theory * McClelland’s Theory of Needs * Cognitive Evaluation Theory * Expectancy Theory ¢ Motivational Asnects of Social 

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Definition * Motivation: —The process that accounts for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining 1 MISSING: oe کي REWARD IF FOUND 

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Reinforcement theory * Dominated the motivation literature until early 1960s. * Conceptualizes motivation entirely in terms of observable behaviors. * Assumes that behavior iS caused by events external to the person. 

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Reinforcement theory (con.) * Behavior CaN be understood in terms of simple laws that apply to both human beings a 

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Reinforcement theory (con.) * Individuals exhibit a particular behavior because they have been reinforced (rewarded) for that behavior in the past. * Behavior modification: The process of using reinforcement principles to change behavior. 

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Reinforcement theory (con.) ¢ Skinner (1974) defined consequences that influence the probability of behaviors: — Positive reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors that they were contingent upon. — Negative reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors by taking away or reducing its intensity. 

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Reinforcement theory (con.) (Ex) ١ “May be effective. — 9 Reinforceme nt—___V Cees a ee) ee 

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Reinforcement theory (con.) + Using punishment frequently, may create a fearful atmosphere, which undermines learning and the effectiveness of communication. * Some important points for using rewards effectively: — Use reward to get individuals engaged in an activity, and then gradually withdraw the reward when they show some interest. — Make sure that it is clear to individuals what behavior the reward ‏ا ا فى ا ا ا 0ك‎ 

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Reinforcement theory (con.) * Some important points for using rewards effectively: (Con.) — Use the most modest reward that will work. — Make sure that the time between the desired behavior and the reward is not so great that reward has no effect. — Make sure that rewards are realistically available. — Make sure that you treat employees fairly! 

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Equity theory By J. Stacy Adams described the employment relationship as an exchange relationship — Employees contributed inputs —Employees received outcomes in return. Inputs: — Education, Previous work experience, Effort on the job, Training, and etc. Outcomes: 

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Equity theory (con.) ۰ Every employee compares himself/herself with other employees. Changing Inputs Distorting perception of self or others Changing Changing inputs or outcomes of the Leaving the field Choosing a different referent 

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Equity theory (con.) * Procedural justice = the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards —has strong impact on * Distributive justice = Faimess of allocation is more important for Procedural Justice 020 عیام ز۲۲وزط۱ 

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Maslow’s Theory (Hierarchy of needs) ٠ Maslow hypothesized that within every individual there exists a hierarchy of five needs: — Physiological: bodily needs; ~ Safety: security, protection from physical and emotional harm; ~ Social: affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship; ~ Esteem: self-respect, autonomy, recognition, attention; — Self-actualization: the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; 

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Maslow’s Theory (Con.) * According to Maslow, when each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the ne dominant. 

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Maslow’s Theory (Con.) * This theory can give us an insight into motivation in terms of needs. * It has been argued that Maslow’s theory has cultural limitations. * There is no strong empirical evidence for the hierarchy of needs. 

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ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1970) * Three dimensions of ERG theory Relatedne 0 * ERG theory proposes that — More than one need may be operative at the same time — Order of needs may differ in different cultures — If fulfillment of a higher level need is prevented, the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases. 

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McClelland’s Theory of Needs Focuses on three needs: —Need for Achievement —Need for Power — Need for Affiliation * The following relation is well- 508 Achievemen search: | Job t Need (۱ ۱6 

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Two-factor (hygiene-motivation) Theory Herzberg investigated the question ‘What do people want from their jobs?’ Results suggested that ~ Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievements seemed to be related to job satisfaction. — Dissatisfaction was attributed to extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working condition. — Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not two opposite sides of a continuum 

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Two-factor Theory (Con.) تن تست Motivators: Recognition, Responsibility, Advancement تا دا Hygiene Factors: Pay, Policies, Work Condition, Supervision 

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory * Stating that — Allocating rewards for behavior that had been previously rewarding tends to decrease overall level of motivation. * The popular explanation: — Individuals experiences a loss of control over his or her own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes. 

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Expectancy Theory * Expectancy theories — use rational approaches — suggest that individuals choose behaviors based on expectations of the outcomes of actions, seeking to achieve the most desirable outcome 

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Vroom’s expectancy theory + Integrates three components: x x is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome of a situation and is related to an individual's expected incentive, preferences, and values. is the belief that output from the individual (EFFORT) and the success of the situation are linked, e.g. if | work harder then this will be better. is the belief that the success of the situation is linked to the expected outcome of the situation, e.g. it's gone really well, so I'd expect praise. 

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Vroom’s expectancy theory (Con.) * Implications for Leaders: —Identify positively valent outcome; — Increase expectancies; — Make performance instrumental toward positive outcome. 

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Group Task * Use expectancy theory to explain motivational processes of: —An employee’s motivation to become a manager; —An employee’s motivation to participate in a training program. 

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Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory + Self-Efficacy refers to “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” ( ) * necessary knowledge and skills is not sufficient to perform a task successfully, but also is needed. 

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Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) * Consequences of Self-Efficacy: —The more people believe in their capabilities for given domains and tasks, the more likely they will put effort into and persist with their activities, especially when there are failures ( — An individual’s self-efficacy also influences what he or she chooses to do. — Leaders high in leadership efficacy experience low level of anxiety ( 4 

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Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) High Self- Set high level goals Efficacy More likely 1 May have High Achievement 

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Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) * Sources of Self-Efficacy: : Successful experiences are likely to enhance self-efficacy, while failures may reduce self- efficacy. These are the most influential sources of self-efficacy. : refer to those by which people appraise their capabilities in relation to others’ attainments. The information acquired from these experiences is likely to be more influential for one’s self-efficacy when the others are similar to the individual. : persuasion that one possesses certain capabilities can affect self-efficacy. However, verbal persuasion may be ineffective when it is used alone and _ inconsistent with other sources, especially mastery experiences. : Personal efficacy may also be appraised when people interpret their physiological or affective states. People may judge their fatigue, aches, pains, and tensions to be signs of physical or affective incapability. 

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Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) ٠ Empowerment and Self-Efficacy — Dimensions of empowerment: * Meaning * Self-determination + Self-efficacy * Impact 

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Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) * Collective Efficacy: — Collective efficacy is defined as a group’s shared belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given levels of attainments” ( ‏سم‎ — Sources of collective efficacy 1 can be similar to sources of © self-efficacy. 

Motivation Organizational Behavior – Session 7-10 Dr. S. B. Alavi, 2009. Table of Contents • • • • • Reinforcement Theory Equity Theory Maslow’s Theory ERG Theory Two-factor (Hygiene-Motivation) Theory • McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Cognitive Evaluation Theory • Expectancy Theory 2 from 33 • Definition • Motivation: – The process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal. 3 from 33 Reinforcement theory • Dominated the motivation until early 1960s. literature • Conceptualizes motivation entirely terms of observable behaviors. in • Assumes that behavior is caused by events external to the person. 4 from 33 Reinforcement theory (Con.) can be understood in terms of simple laws that apply to both human beings and animals. • Behavior 5 from 33 Reinforcement theory (Con.) • Individuals exhibit a particular behavior because they have been reinforced (rewarded) for that behavior in the past. • Behavior modification: The process of using reinforcement principles to change behavior. 6 from 33 Reinforcement theory (Con.) • Skinner (1974) defined consequences that influence the probability of behaviors: – Positive reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors that they were contingent upon. – Negative reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors by taking away or reducing its intensity. 7 from 33 Reinforcement theory (Con.) Punishment + Positive Reinforceme nt Punishment Positive Positive Reinforceme nt May be effective Only short term suppression of the undesirable behaviors. 8 from 33 Reinforcement theory (Con.) • Using punishment frequently, may create a fearful atmosphere, which undermines learning and the effectiveness of communication. • Some important points for using rewards effectively: – Use reward to get individuals engaged in an activity, and then gradually withdraw the reward when they show some interest. – Make sure that it is clear to 9 from 33 individuals what behavior the reward Reinforcement theory (Con.) • Some important points for using rewards effectively: (Con.) – Use the most modest reward that will work. – Make sure that the time between the desired behavior and the reward is not so great that reward has no effect. – Make sure that rewards are realistically available. – Make sure that you treat employees fairly! 10 from 33 Equity theory • By J. Stacy Adams • described the employment relationship as an exchange relationship – Employees contributed inputs – Employees received outcomes in return. • Inputs: – Education, Previous work experience, Effort on the job, Training, and etc. • Outcomes: 11 from 33 Equity theory • 1 • (Con.) Every employee compares himself/herself with other employees. When an inequity 2 is perceived, Changing there are 6 choices: Changing Inputs Outcomes 3 Distorting perception of self or others 4 Changing inputs or outcomes of the referent 6 5 Choosing a different Leaving the referent field 12 from 33 Equity theory (Con.) • Procedural justice = the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards – has strong impact on • Organizational commitment, • Trust in managers, intention to quit, • Organizational citizenship behaviors • Distributive justice = allocation Fairness of – is more important for • Job satisfaction. Strongly Procedural Influences Justice Perceived Distributed Justice 13 from 33 14 from 33 Maslow’s Theory (Hierarchy of needs) • Maslow hypothesized that within every individual there exists a hierarchy of five needs: – Physiological: bodily needs; – Safety: security, protection from physical and emotional harm; – Social: affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship; – Esteem: self-respect, autonomy, recognition, attention; – Self-actualization: the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; 15 from 33 Maslow’s Theory (Con.) • According to Maslow, when each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. 16 from 33 Maslow’s Theory (Con.) • This theory can give us an insight into motivation in terms of needs. • It has been argued that Maslow’s theory has cultural limitations. • There is no strong empirical the hierarchy of needs. evidence for 17 from 33 ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1970) • Three dimensions of ERG theory Existenc e Relatedne ss Growth • ERG theory proposes that – More than one need may be operative at the same time – Order of needs may differ in different cultures – If fulfillment of a higher level need is prevented, the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases. 18 from 33 McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Focuses on three needs: – Need for Achievement – Need for Power – Need for Affiliation • The following relation is wellSupported in research: Achievemen t Need Job Performance 19 from 33 Two-factor (hygiene-motivation) Theory • Herzberg investigated the question ‘What do people want from their jobs?’ • Results suggested that – Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievements seemed to be related to job satisfaction. – Dissatisfaction was attributed to extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working condition. – Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not two opposite sides of a continuum 20 from 33 Two-factor Theory (Con.) Satisfaction No Satisfaction Motivators: Recognition, Responsibility, Advancement Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction Hygiene Factors: Pay, Policies, Work Condition, Supervision 21 from 33 Cognitive Evaluation Theory • Stating that – Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall level of motivation. • The popular explanation: – Individuals experiences a loss of control over his or her own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes. 22 from 33 23 from 33 Expectancy Theory • Expectancy theories – use rational approaches – suggest that individuals choose behaviors based on expectations of the outcomes of actions, seeking to achieve the most desirable outcome 24 from 33 Vroom’s expectancy theory • Integrates three components: Motivation force = Valance × Expectancy × Instrumentality – Valance is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome of a situation and is related to an individual’s expected incentive, preferences, and values. – Expectancy is the belief that output from the individual (EFFORT) and the success of the situation are linked, e.g. if I work harder then this will be better. – Instrumentality is the belief that the success of the situation is linked to the expected outcome of the situation, e.g. it's gone really well, so I'd expect praise. 25 from 33 Vroom’s expectancy theory (Con.) Performanc e Effort Expectanc y Outcome Instrumentalit y • Implications for Leaders: – Identify positively valent outcome; – Increase expectancies; – Make performance instrumental toward positive outcome. 26 from 33 Group Task • Use expectancy theory to explain motivational processes of: – An employee’s motivation to become a manager; – An employee’s motivation to participate in a training program. 27 from 33 Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory • Self-Efficacy refers to “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3) • necessary knowledge and skills is not sufficient to perform a task successfully, but also high self-efficacy is needed. 28 from 33 Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) • Consequences of Self-Efficacy: – The more people believe in their capabilities for given domains and tasks, the more likely they will put effort into and persist with their activities, especially when there are failures (Bandura, 1997). – An individual’s self-efficacy also influences what he or she chooses to do. – Leaders high in leadership efficacy experience low level of anxiety (Hoyt et al., 2003). 29 from 33 Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) High SelfEfficacy Set high level goals More likely to May have High Achievement 30 from 33 Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) • Sources of Self-Efficacy: – Mastery experiences: Successful experiences are likely to enhance self-efficacy, while failures may reduce selfefficacy. These are the most influential sources of self-efficacy. – Vicarious experiences: refer to those by which people appraise their capabilities in relation to others’ attainments. The information acquired from these experiences is likely to be more influential for one’s self-efficacy when the others are similar to the individual. – Verbal persuasion: persuasion that one possesses certain capabilities can affect self-efficacy. However, verbal persuasion may be ineffective when it is used alone and inconsistent with other sources, especially mastery experiences. – Physical and affective states: Personal efficacy may also be appraised when people interpret their physiological or affective states. People may judge their fatigue, aches, pains, and tensions to be signs of physical or affective incapability. 31 from 33 Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) • Empowerment and Self-Efficacy – Dimensions of empowerment: • • • • Meaning Self-determination Self-efficacy Impact 32 from 33 Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.) • Collective Efficacy: – Collective efficacy is defined as a group’s shared belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given levels of attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 477). – Sources of collective efficacy can be similar to sources of self-efficacy. 33 from 33