اصول آسیب شناسی پس از برداشت و مدیریت پوسیدگی محصولات باغی خوراکی

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تسه كشاورزى مدرن بر سطح بالاى توليد و توزيع محصولات 6 ین ال کید کرده ات کنندگان یکی ترا کید بت بر یتوافت ‎Ab ae pare‏ ملت وزی به هی معلی ملی و محفظه سينى. سالخورده. حمل و تقل به هی دور و كهدارى طولاتى تر ‎py Ban‏ ضررهی تشی از قرج ها رشته ياكثرئ ها متضترها اميت ‎la‏ ينا كزفة اننتة اكرجه يعو در كار لد تزع مود یی با زین ‎ei UN gal yl‏ محصولات زا و پس از راشت محصول سکن است بای نافیل سیب محصول و تفت ناشیا پوسیدگیپس از راشت محصول ‎snes A‏ زمان ذخييه سازى طولانى تر و حمل و قل بين ‎A J ll‏ احثمال بوسيدكى اوليه ممكن است ‎gle tay ake ppl‏ که یک ‎we eg‏ محدود كنتده عمده تبديل شوند يا مشكلات جديدى أز عوامل بيمارى زا هبل گرد اعركونه تفي در توليد. جابجايى يا قرأورى كالاها ممكن انسث منج به یش مقدمه ۳0000۵ ‘The development of modern agriculture has emphasized high levels of production and distribution of agricultural products to local, national, and international markets. Successful marketing depends on delivering high-quality produce to consumers. With increased emphasis on crop Uniformity, bulk handling, tight-fill and cavity-tray pack. aging. shipment to more distant markets, and longer storage, it has become increasingly important to minimize losses caused by bacteria filamentous fungi, and yeasts, Although improvements in growing and postharvest handling of crops may provide more efficient means of food production and distribution at lower costs, they often increase the potential for crop injury and subsequent losses from postharvest decays. With longer storage times and long-distance transportation, the potential for primary decay's may increase. Decays that were once secondary or minor may become major limiting factors, or new problems from previously unknot pathogens may develop. Thus, any change in production, handling, or processing of commodities may 

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Pit hey ‏ألوحد كد يه حداتل‎ Spin og J Jl Spare Se ‏در شيوههاى توليد قبل از برداشت كه به طور كلى مطح تلفيح‎ ‎Jo»‏ يوسيدكى يس از برداشث را لايش داده. ‎ ‎ ‏فرهنگی یه وان مال کشت با چا ری اوه سر قصول طولتى تزبرداشت. و كاشت ارقام حساس جديد يناراين يا فزليش مناطق توليد يك معصول ممكن لسث استرازى هاى توليد صتخي ‏براشت به دلايل اقتصادى به خطر بيفتد. يا مشكلات بيمارى موضعى در ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏يافاك يزرك مشاهحه تود يزاين تتوع محصول به ليل مدرفی لها ‎ ‏اجديد. ممكن أست مشكلات جديد يا نلشتاخته بيمارى يجا شود ‎‘These changes promote increased research in Improved postharvest disease control that have Permitted the development of successful long distance marketing and shipping, ‎‘Any postharvest decay management program needs to begin with preharvest practices that promote a healthy crop, reduce conducive environments for pathogen infection and disease development, and minimize the amount of the pathogen that may insect or contaminate the crop before harvest. Changes in preharvest production practices that have generally increased the inoculum levels of postharvest decay organisms and the potential for postharvest decays to occur Include increases in production acreages, diversity of crops, new cultural practices (e.g. high-density plantings, high-angle or overhead Irrigation). longer harvest seasons, and planting of, new susceptible cultivars. Thus, with Increased production areas of a crop, sound preharvest production strategies may be compromised for economic reasons, or localized disease problems may not be noticed in large orchards. With increased crop diversity due to the introduction of new commodities, new or Unknown disease problems may be introduced. ‎ 

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بن روش ساير روشهاى بيش از برداشت ماند استفاد از أقام مفلوم. روشا ار که ول چا ايه حتاقل م رساك كود متادل أرضه مد كه از كاشت محصول يا آغاز هر قصل رشد أفاز م شود هر طيل تم نامه یی وا طريق حمل و تقل بس از بد ‎ae‏ خيره سازى. حمل و تفل و الى تا زماتى كه محصولات به است مصرف کنده لوس روشهای حمل و تقل پس از رات بر حظط سلامت فیزیلوزیمحصول وه حدقل ادن لفات ناشیا پوسیدگی متمركز يلد ميودها و سيزيجاتى كه داراى مثلوليسم قعال مستند مقاومت قليل ‎tact nas GE oh tic‏ یکی هخا تسیل رز ‏۳ أو املاح جر با فادها اکیزی کش بات ‎ ‎ ‎In contrast, other preharvest practices such as the use of resistant cultivars, irigation practices that minimize wellness duration, balanced nitrogen fertilization, canopy management (pruning). insect and weed control. and the use of fungicides may reduce the amount of fruit decay before and after harvest and reduce inoculum levels, of targeted pathogens (Adaskaveg and Forster 2000). ‎Preharvest disease management in the field is an Important component of the integrated pest management (IPM) strategy _to control pathogens. Similarly, postharvest decay control practices should aiso be considered part of an IPM program that begins at crop planting or the beginning of teach growing season continues through the season, ‘and extends on through, postharvest, handling, including packaging. storage, transportation, and marketing until the produce reaches the consumer. Postharvest handling practices should focus on maintaining a healthy physiology of the produce and on minimizing losses from decay Fruits and vegetables that have an active metabolism show considerable resistance to ‘microbial infection and decay, whereas stressed or senescent fruits are prone to disease. In addition, actively of decay microorganisms depends on the presence of conducive environmental conditions. ‏وج نموم مهم نومیم مسا مه دله ۲ عم پم[‎ ‎ 

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ای یه سر سپ ور یأر ی ‎tae gl es‏ وميد هاى ناشي ار قرجها مرك تيمهاى قر كش يس لز داكت به طور مور يوسيدكى وهای مت نيم كرمسيوى و كرسيرى ركلف مي مهد ‎(pela dag‏ سح نع ازجا دی در يدن مو شوتد بطو لى مقرون به شرف بون و وه مسا کول رو زول مات ماب ره وروی عديريث بيمارى است و در يرشى موارد كتتول هاى بيولوزيكى در بای تاه تفاضا براى محصولات اركانيك يا ری ‎J‏ سموم دقع قات ني قزاي ‎Sat des occas:‏ ی و راتسا مد لت رای ون رت ری بلج و ‎ad pny A a ta lh pane‏ ‎Dig iene mien:‏ لد د ده لك و مان دید ما لشن لاح ده و رای رها وه تاه یدوز هم داز ‎“ip Aja as oy gute cca peel ae‏ عناوم ‎soe‏ میت ومد مسوات ی اه موه کنر منود هی مد Because fungi cause the majority of postharvest problems, the remainder of this chapter will focus ‘mainly on decays caused by fungi Postharvest fungicide treatments effectively reduce decay of temperate, subtropical, and tropical fruits (see Eckert and "Ogawa 1985, 1988). Properly applied treatments prevent or impede the development of decay-causing organisms, are generally economical, and are important means fof controlling deterioration of fresh and processed food crops. Currently chemicals are an integral part of disease management programs and in some instances biological controls have been integrated into existing programs. With higher demands for fresh produce by consumers, the demand for organic or pesticide-free produce has also increased. Furthermore, with heightened awareness regarding worker and consumer safety, restrictions are being placed on the use of many ‘older postharvest chemicals, Thus, development ‘of new treatments for food crops to minimize decay losses has increasingly emphasized safer products, ‘minimal residues, and if possible, methods that do ‘not use pesticides (e.g., temperature management, ‘modified atmospheres, etc.) for specialty markets. Stil, the use of pesticides has resulted in a reasonably sale supply of horticultural commodities with minimal health risks from pesticides and decay-causing microorganisms, as well as their by- 

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3 مثلشبيماز صى8),ا1)1050:)5/ :66060 0/16 6ر71 خرمورد بيمارى هلى قبل از برداشت. بيمارى هلى يس از برداشت رأ مىتوان ب عنوان برهم ‎ES‏ ‏بيمارى توصيف كود ميزان باون و محيط. تفيبر هرعر يك از لين اجزلى مثلث بيمارى بر مان الى بيمارى تأثير م ىكذاد و بر قدامات كدثرلى تأئ م ىكذارد. استفاده از هرماهاى ‎ne‏ مديريت دمء اتسفر املاح شده و فيره) يس از برداشت (شيميى. به عون ‎SES De‏ ببولوزيكى) از بوسيد كى جلوكير می‌کن با آن جلوگیری می‌کن. سترازیهای دمن و دمن اد ماس دکش صحح از روايط متقابل ميزيان بيمارى براى دوردهلى قبل و هر زمان هرمان بلشد.نكات مهمىكه بايد هر انظر كرقته شود مبارتتد از ‘As for preharvest diseases, postharvest diseases can also be ‘described as the interaction of the disease triangle: host, pathogen, and environment. A change in any of these ‘components in the disease triangle will influence the final Amount of disease and will affect the control measures to be taken. The use of postharvest physical (e.g. temperature management, modified atmospheres, etc.) and chemical ] sanitizers, fungicides, and biological control agents) prevents or inhibits the development of decay. Handling and treatment strategies must be based on a sound knowledge ‘of the hostpathagen interrelationships for the periods before and at the time of treatment, The critical points that must be considered are + the types of pathogens involved + the location of the pathogen and whether it ls contaminating the surface or is established within the host tissue + time and location of pathogen infection + the best time for treatment to prevent a secondary disease cycle during storage and transport + the maturity of the hast with reference to susceptibility to specific pathogens + the environmental conditions during storage, transportation, and marketing + storage, distribution, and marketing strategic that accelerate delivery of commodities 

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‎slashes‏ خاص برا تأثيرات متنى هركوته هرمان يس از بايد فر تظر كرفته شود به هتوان مل دماى تامناسب تكهدارى يا جو املاح ‎pe lye egal lap gly pr Sa adh‏ ‏اين ‎ite la‏ علاو رین ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎eee Si AUS ee My a Aa ym IS Fay Sa ‏فيزيكى و شیمیی بر‎ ‏شواهد بود امول سركوب بيمارى با استفاده از روشهاى مستكارى.‎ od ‏محيطهاى املاح شده‎ ‏كنثول شد استفاده ازاتيلز, و غيره‎ ‏عنوان مثال يلغ در زمان‎ ‏به أن يراحقة خواهد شد علاوه‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏بان در يوسيدكى ليه یسیو شیر ‎ ‎ ‏موجود یی كنتول باتو نهلى بوسيدكى يس از برداشت. فاد مناسب أزاين مواد و استرزىها باى به حداقل رساندن توسعه مقاومت در جمعيث ها هدف و وضعيت تظارتى مواد شيميانى ‏ ‎SPS‏ بيولوزيكى بررسی می‌شود. ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎Specific treatments are selected based on these parameters. In addition, negative effects of any postharvest treatment on fruit. quality should also bbe considered. For example, improper storage temperatures or modified atmospheres may lead to ‘off-lavors or fruit discoloration, The interactions of the disease triangle that affect decay management by changing host physiology or the physical and ‘chemical environment will be the central focus of this chapter. Principles of disease suppression by handling practices, modified environments, storage (e.g., temperature management, Controlled atmospheres, use of ethylene, etc.), and the influence of the host on decay (e.g. maturity at harvest, climacteric and nonclimacterie fruits tc.) will be discussed. In addition, chemical and’ biological treatments available for ‎Controlling postharvest decay pathogens, proper Usage of these ‏د سود ةرو‎ ze Teslstance develop artzanma cerns Gnas” ans, land the regulatory saints ‘st ‘chemicals and bio ‎reviewed. ‎ ‎ ‎ 

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وهای یی رایس 55 ود فا تي منج به ود ری و رای ‎aoe‏ ا | السث. كربوهيدراتهابى كه به 00) 1كسيد مىشوند و أب توسط فتيسنئز بركهاى سبز با رتش بت ند ی و سجن و ند ری وی مق ما لیخد کرت تا مد ‎sega‏ ‏یک ای که ون مسق وه دس ری سای کی اتتفس فرآيندى الست كه لین درجه قارهايت) قار مى كيرن. يكى از دو الكوى تنفسى بسيار متفاوت را نشان مىدهند. هماتطور كه توسط توليد 0© نشان داده شده اسث (شكل 4111 كيلا هاى شيرين با شهنه به تدريع ميزان تنفس را نشان مىدهند. همانطور كه توسط خط دوت اشث قبل از رسیدن کال در طی مراحل رسیدن هو در نشيجه طمم شيرين تر ایجاد POGTLOROEST LOGT PUY CIOLOGYEH 2 Sls gs Saleh CLIMACTERIC AND NONCLIMACTERIC FRUITS Respiration is a process by which the captured eneray of light stored in organic compounds by photosynthesis Is released by oxidation. The respiratory process results in usable chemical eneray and heat (vital heat or heat of respiration). While a fruit is stil attached to the plant, carbohydrates that are oxidized to CO, and water are replaced by photosynthetic from green leaves or from, stored reserves in the plant. Once separated from the tree, the fruit relies on its carbohydrate reserves. The respiratory process must continue to produce energy for cellular functions or the fruit tissues will die, Postharvest environments are designed to reduce the rate of respiration to the minimum required to maintain vital processes. The stored reserves are thereby conserved and the postharvest life of the fruit is extended to a maximum, Fruits harvested and placed in respirometers at about 20°C (68°F) exhibit one of two very different respiratory patterns, as shown by CO, production (fig. 17.1). Sweet Cherries show a gradual decrease in the respiration rate, as Indicated by the dated line, as they ripen and senesce. When harvested before fully ripe, the cherries darken and become soft during the ripening process. Acids may decrease, resulting in a sweeter taste, but large increases in sugar do not aceur because of the absence of large reserves of starch at harvest. In addition to sweet cherries, 

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تنفس اقليمى توسط اكثر كونههاى ميوء درختان بركريز به عنوان مال سیب. کلای تدالو هل شليل. الو به مايش كذاشته موشود. سیر ميودهاى #رصسيرى و تيمه كرصسيرى (به عنوان ‎Sh Ye igs Soe‏ ‎Eso eee a)‏ كاه كنيد على لوج كيرى اوضاع. ميودها نرم مىشوند و رتك زرديا لز دست خامن كلروقيل واقزايش رتكداتمعاى كاروتتويد تشديد م شود دو آن زمان ممكن اسث أنتوسيانين ازنك هاى قرمز. أ و بتفشس). توليد شود. توليد تيان مانند ساير مواد قار جمله تركييات مرقيط ب رليحمعاى ميوه.ازايش مىياب. اوج منحنى تنفسى تقريبً نی است که تنفس كاهش موريايد در ميودهلى اقليمى برداشث قبل از ‎EIB eae‏ اوضاع در تنفس يهثرين راه بواى رسيدن به حداكثر عمر يس از ‎Sle‏ ‏استه مطاقعات نان دلده ست كبا رار كوفئن ‎lpia seme‏ ‎ny Se‏ اقرش لوضاع را شروع کرد اكر برشى از ميودها شرو رسيدن كرده باشحد انان توليد شده ممكن اسث بامث افزايش تنفس در ميودطلى باليمانته شود به طور متايه ميودهاى يوسيده يا كيودى مك لس اتيان كافى براى تحريك رسيدن أزاد كتند ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎je ee ae‏ ارود مملكره سليلى يداخر مها شيم هق کاهش میا تفس باه در سوت مان ه حداقل ادن وبه تخیر ‎Sl‏ یش وفع و فریندهای رین مربط شروریاست. ین مهم ‎JES) ls‏ ۱۷۲ با ترکیبی از دماى بابين واتمسفر املاح شد. ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎CClimacteric respiration is exhibited by most deciduous tree fruit species (e.g., apples, pears, apricots, peaches, nectarines, plums). many tropical ‘and subtropical fruits (e.9. bananas, guavas, ‘avocados, mangos), and some fruit vegetables (e.9. tomatoes) (see fig. 17.1, slid line). During the climacteric rise, fruits Soften, and yellow colors intensify through loss of chlorophyll and increase of Carotenoid pigments. Anthocyanins (red, blue, and ppurple colors) may be produced at this time Production of ethylene increases, as does that of ‘ther volatiles, including those associated with fruit ‘aromas. The peak of the respiratory curve ‘approximates the time that fruits are considered ripe for consumption. After the climax, respiration {gradually decreases as the fruits senesce. In Climacteric fruits, harvesting before the start of the climacteric rise in respiration is the best way to attain maximum postharvest life. Studies have shown that the climacteric rise can be initialed prematurely by exposing fruit to ethylene. If some Of the fruit have started to ripen, the ethylene they produce may trigger the respiratory rise among the Femaining fruit. Similarly, rotting of badly bruised fruit may release sufficient ethylene to trigger ripening, ‎itis important to maintain fruts in a vigorous Condition by lowering the respiration rate to the ‘minimum that still permits nor. mal cellular function. With climacteric frults it Is essential not ‎ 

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ی پوسیدگیحفظ ‎spe‏ ‏روخ رسيدن ميوه مفاومت به طور محسوسى كاهش مو بابد. ميوه نه تنها هنكام رسيدن به شايع ترين عوامل بيماري زا خود حساس م شود. بلكه زابى تسليم مىشود كه قبلا در بار أن مقاوم بود انسته ب عتوان مثا موه هی ی يا زديك شدن به بلو + بيشتو در معرض بيمارى هاى اصلى محصول هستند ‏ از جمل .بوسيدعى قهوه ای ای از 3160/3 169۷ 140011013 و كيك خاكسترى تاش 10663 3010/۵5 از انا کی سوه ها کل ره پر می شود تا هلى ديكر منند وه های 80126۴5 با ۳6۳ مسول ات یس یی سللی در آسیب‌های موه اد میشود. سای آسیب دید تطس را ای ‎El ISTE ys‏ تیک می‌شود و جر هپیریسلولی با مرگ می‌شود حساسيث به كوفونيزاسيون قرح افزايش مىيابد. يعبود يخشيدن به زخوهلى ميزيان در بسلوغ ميوهملئ»0091:000+11 ۳01۲ Commonly, a high degree of resistance to decay is maintained Until the fruit approaches maturity. Resistance is reduced noticeably as the fruit begins to ripen. Not only does the frult become susceptible to its mast common pathagens when it ripens, but it succumbs to attack by pathagens it was resistant to formerly: For example, as stone fruits approach maturity, they are increasingly susceptible to the main diseases of the crop, including brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola and ‘gray mofd caused by Botrytis cinerea. As these fruits Completely ripen or become senescent, however, other fungi such as Rhizopus or Penicillium species commonly cause postharvest decays. In climacteric fruits, the climacteric rise in respiration roughly coincides with a striking reduction in the full’ resistance to many pathogens. Cellular senescence Is, Induced in fruit injuries. Damaged cells have increased respiration, and ethylene product fgesias "7" leading to cellular senescence ‏تت و هزم‎ susceptibility to fungal cofonizati fsisnnos injures is discussed in the next s 

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اتزن باد ير فا ‎ob obi‏ ش مفوتى وجو دارد كه از تفوذ تون و باسخهاى يس از جلوكيرى يا جلوكيرى مىكند (به 1992 8403562189 مراجمه كنيدا. إن موائع يا باسخ مقاومت ميزيان مى تند ماهيت ساختارى با بيوشيميابى داشنه باشد.موائع ساختارى .بيش عفونى ميودها و سايرانداوهلى كياهى جدا شده كه در يربر حمله قارجى مقاومت ‎Sg‏ ‏اببدرم وهمجنين معمارى روزته (دهائههانى درابيدرم كيد كه امكان تباذل كا ا فولهم مىكند) و عمق و تعدلد تريكومها (موهاى كياه). ابن ساختارها ممكن الست تون مقاومت كتند ياه املاح محيط در سطح ميوه كك كتتد و ميوه وا بيشت يا كمثر مستعد اثلا به عفونت كتند. علاوه بر ان مود شیمابی یش ساخته اشده طبيعى (به عنوان مئال فنليك ها طرفهاى كليكو سيتوزنيك) يا بيش سازهلى أنها در برشى از ميودها وجود دارد كه به طور بالقوه رشد ميكروبى را مهار م ى كند الب 615 كل (به عنوان ‎oly a le‏ بسيار ارج أور خا در مها بیاغ هدن مود رییدن و لس دن بد بيار لحان مر ویس یک موی سس مت میرن ‎ae Ss ae‏ ‎clans JSS 98s‏ ديواره سلولى (يابلاه) در محل نفوذ قا ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏رمتدر برایر خن در لیر مه کارچی۵/7۳۵00 6008 16 ۵۵/1۵/۲۵۵0 ۵۵7 06 0۵09۵۵1۵0۵ ‎‘To establish an infection, the pathogen must overcome the natural host defenses of the nonwounded frut. Essentially, there are preinfectional barriers that prevent or inhibit pathogen penetration and postinfectional responses to disease development (see Adaskaveg 1992). These barriers or responses of host resistance can be structural or biochemical in nature. Preinfectional structural barriers of, fruits and other detached plant organs that resist fungal attack include the cuticle and the epidermis, as well as the architecture of stomata (openings in the plant epidermis that allow gas exchange) and the depth and number of trichrome (plant hairs). These structures may resist penetration of the pathogen directly or contribute to modifying the ‘microenvironment on the fruit surface, rendering the frult either more or less susceptible to infection. Additionally, naturally occurring presormed chemicals (e.g... phenofics, cyanogenic glyco sides) or their precursors are present ‘within some fruits that potentially inhibit micrabial growth. Often, total pofyphenafs (i.e. lannins) or specific highly fungitexic compounds in fruit decrease as fruit mature, ripen, and become susceptible to disease. ‎As indicated above, postinfectional responses also include ‎structural and biochemical responses. Postinfectional 

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على رشد قبل از برداشت. اكثر ميودها توانايى هبودى از أسيبهلى نالشى از ‎cael ges SY at pe steely‏ دید از ول بولک خی زنده ‎REST A Vyas 8 clang ty ode‏ یک سد از ‎la ie‏ كه به زخم تبديل مىشوند و زير اب مى رده زخم را هید بخشد. ‏بعضى أز ميودهاء سلولهاى ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏عنون مثال. در بابايا سلوهاى ابيدرمى جداكاته ب توليد رسويات كلوز كه هيفهاى ناف را در خود محصور مىكنند به هيفهاى عفونى ناشى از أبرسورياى قارجى ‎ ‎ ‏ادر ياسخهاى بيوشيميايى بس از عفونت, تركييات قارج أور كه قبلا وجيد نداشته. ده منوا یک تیجه از حمله قرچیتشکیل میشود ان تکیت که فيتالاكسين ‎gg a‏ ممدثا يوفى قنوف. يزو فلاونوليدها ا ين ينيدهاى ع بيوشيمياى كياه فقط منفعل تيست بلكه ‎Bp Jo‏ عامل بيماريا است. به هنون مثال. ارقم ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎BS gah‏ شيمياى در بر ‎Cylindrocarpon mali (Nectria galligena) « pi. —‏ ‎ ‎ ‎During preharvest development, most fruits have the ability to recover from injuries by wound-lcaling processes. A fruit injured from biotic or abiotic ‘agents, such as rubbing against other fruit, is usually able to heal the wound by the formation of a barrier fof cells that become lignified and subcrized. Thus, the fruit effectively regains protection against entrance of microorgan- isms. in some fruits, individual cells may also form barriers to attempted penetration. For example, in papaya individual epidermal cells respond to infection hyphae from fungal appressoria (swellings on fungal hyphae from which infections are initiated) by producing callose deposits that encase the penetrating hyphae (see ‘Stanghellini and Aragaki 1966). ‎In postinfectional biochemical responses, fungitoxic ‘compounds not previously present are formed as a consequence of fungal attack. These compounds, Called phytoalexins, are mainly pofyphenots, isoflavonoids, or ter penoids. The plant's biochemical defense is thus not merely passive but includes the ability to respond with chemical defenses against the invading pathogen. For example, apple cultivars resistant to Cylindrocarpon mali (Nectria galligena), {an important storage disease in Europe, produce two to three times the amount of benzoic acid in response to infection compared to susceptible cultivars (Noble and Drysdale 1983). ‎ 

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هی كه به رشوهلى موجود در إبى كارب ميوه يستكى اند سکن أست عفونت را مهار كد زخمها قبل از ناسون باه و وال م شود زخوها أظب ديكر هر معرش حمل وب تین برش رین ‎gt) gl gus Ss ey se‏ اه ‎ei Shp ig Bl apt ta el‏ مخلوط شده ودر قوس زخم قرار م كيرد ها ‎ty le‏ ‎een ils‏ مور که سیم یندب بفى فنوفهاى موجود در شيره سلول مخلوط مىشوند. قهوه اى شدن در ‎etl oy‏ اكسيداسيون أنزيمى تركييات فتوفيك و زخم ‎Sl a‏ وهای زد در مجيوحيث أز نر وليك يسيار فعال م شوند حلى لكر برخم دود ار متك لست 0600901090015 م ل وق ع مف ع لج بين زغمهای ساققت شده سوب اه مشود مهار زین یرود Pathagens that depend on wounds in the fruit epicarp lo establish an Infection may be inhibited is wounds heal priar to potential cofonization by fungal pathogens. When fruits are removed from cofd storage, wounds often are no longer highly prone to lungal invasion. Some of this resistance is, siinply due to drying of the wounded arca. But Injured cells also respond by biochemical ‘mechanisms. Cellular contents are mixed and exposed In the wound arca. Enzymes, such as polyphenof oxidases, that are compartmentalized when the cell is alive, are mixed with the pofyphenofs in the cell sap. Browning in the wound results from enzymatic oxidation of phenofic. compounds and lignification. Living cells near the Injury become very active metabofcally even though they do nat show signs of major injury. Repair is set in motion by these stressed cells. Pofyphenof synthesis may lead to the accumulation of greater quantities of phenofic compounds than those already present. New compounds, often similar to those that accumulate after infection, ‘may appear in the wound area. These may also be polyphenofs. Compounds produced as a result of wounding include some that are highly toxic to fungl. Germinating spores deposited in such "protected" wounds are either inhibited or killed 

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ممه زوه مه ممه توه ده مه 0060016 ‎soomoeasens‏ ارشد ارج مولا واه زی اسآ م‌شود درک معط میب و تین کنده اد متفه سان خم ميق سحي يط جيك ب اس سامت سا شود وزدياة طول هيف حاصل مرشود به زمان زم وى جات ی تسه یک کی ‎gh‏ مره تاره یشد کل ۱۷۳ رحد به دی به یک هه سر کب رح و بویت مد نانک تن رف اه یقت زان رسم میشود. شک متجتیرشد سیگموید با 5 می‌شود (شکل ۱۷۳ ر ند ‎Syne ony pt Jol pe‏ در مقايسه با رشد در محيط كشت طولاقى ترا تأخير خرن زرا سور ‎Shy Ope She‏ بايد بر مكانيسيعاى مقا yang Boag Jd ghee pep ag prac of مطليب تا هفتدها يا مادهادر دملى تزديك به حداقل رشد قارج ادمه يايد Fungal growth usually begins with spore germination. in a wet, nutrient-providing environment, spores of many species swell, germ tubes develop after a few hours, and hhyphal elongation proceeds. The time it takes to germinate {and develop a tiny colony is called the lag phase (fig. 17.3), Growth soon achieves a rapid sicady stale called the log phase, which continues until growth is slowed, usually from Autrient depletion, at which point the stationary phase of the curve is entered. When growth is plotted against time the shape of the growth curve will be sigmoid, or S-shaped (see fig. 17.3). On fruit, the lag and log phases are usually longer or delayed compared to growth on culture medium because the spore must not only germinate but also must fvercome host resistance mechanisms. Depending on the fungal species, the lag phase m: several days at optimal tempere at temperatures near the minim 

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ره ۰۶ج رتخد هی درد شیر در هی ار نهپ ‎po yd pda Su aan‏ ‎Hod sca pas wets jagalaes ban‏ ‎Tirana ve iaatee ae‏ یت ات مت ها سمل سرا ار و تون در مرش خمای ره ‎Sea‏ مر رپس رت و کی دی 1۵2۷ در سرد ری ره ترا ودبي اس درک مره ‎detiata‏ ات اه فا ری متسه وان ترات دما ‎a Se Sp Joh ft‏ تطعا ‎ob 9S on‏ حمل وفلف خمالى در حدود ‎٠‏ حرجه سانتى كراد 55 درجه قارنهايت) يا بالترداند و ‎ ‏یی ‎i‏ در مها بابين رشد كنند محصولات يافى فير حساس. ابه سيما ابه طور كليمىتوآن به يهثرين وجه در كمثرين دما تكهدارى كرد از ‎Carp‏ + سانثى كراد ) ‎71-1١‏ هرجه فارهايت)» ففط جند قرج. ‎EF Hel PE‏ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎Temperature is one of the cardinal factors affecting {growth of fungi, most fungi are mesophiles that ‘grow optimally within a temperature range of 15° to 40°C (59° £0104°F), Some fungi (thermaphiles) respond optimally at higher temperatures. The ‘maxi, mum temperatures for growth are about 35° to 50°C (950 to 122°F), but some species can grow at higher temperatures. A few fungi are ppsychrophilic, with optimums for growth of 0° to 17°C (32° to 62°F) but most are cold-tolerant and can survive exposure to cold temperatures with little growth. Most postharvest pathogens generally {grow best at 20° to 25°C (68° 10 77°F). Effects of temperature on growth or decay can be illustrated by plotting growth or lesion diamcter over a temperature range. The generalized effect of temperatures on growth of M. fructicola as ‘measured by lesion diameter of decay is shown in figure 17.4. Based on the temperature minimum for ‘growth, postharvest decay fungi can be divided into those that have a tenperature minimum for {growth of about 0°C (32°F) or above and those that an grow at lower temperatures. Non-chiling Sensitive horticultural crops can generally best be stored at the lowest temperature said from {recuing. Al-1* to 0°C (30° 10 32°F), only a few fungi can be expected to pose difficulties. ‎ 

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مشهورترين أنها ‎cinerea‏ .5 است. به یهاگ خوره تكهدارى بيش ازع 9106 .باشد. 30305109 0007 بت یاری کیک ی عهاى هرخنان بركري. همجنين ممكن لست تكران كننده باشد از ديكر موتك هاي كه باعث يوسيدكى قال توجه در ‎٠‏ درجه سانثى كراد ۳۳ درجه هت ‎Cladosporium ,Alicmaria altemata = Jo.‏ ‎gles Monilnia fructicola »,‏ درجهساتی ‏كراد (؟؟ درجه فانهايث) به كتدى رشد م كتد به طورى كه بوسيدكى هوه ی ال ‎Soule Joe) ‏رجه ساتی کرد (۲۳ در ‏وه مهار شوند. با ين ‏لكرج انها ‏شكل ‎١12‏ ميزان ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎By far the most notable of these is B. cinerea, particularly if 3 the storage period extends for more than 3 102 4 weeks. Peniciliumapansum, the cause of blue mold disease of fruits of deciduous trees. may also be of concern. Other sungi causing significant rot at O°C (32°F) include Alicmariaaltemata and Cladasporiumherbarum, Moniliniafructicola grows so slovily at 0°C (32°F) that visible brawn rot of stone fruits can be seen only after excessive storage periods. Thus, fungi with a temperature minimum for growth of -5° to -2°C (23° to 28°F) cannot be inhibited by refrigeration without freezing the fruit. Nevertheless, low temperatures are crucial to the suppression of these fungi, because although they are active, their growth rate is only a fraction of that found at higher temperatures. Figure 17.5 shows the extent of rot development in peaches after inoculation with spores of M. fructicola and storage at selected temperatures. Thermal death points of lung! are different for different species of fungi, as well as for different growth stages such as mycelium, spores, or survival structures, Most fungi are sensitive to high temperatures. Thermal death points for spores of many fungi range from 40° 10 60°C (104 to 140°F) for 10-minuteexposures. 

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Figure 75 ‎on goth of Nonna facia eth ut. evden ly Marna et ts‏ و ‎eto om ls ey‏ ادوس سم ع ع ‎sf scorn‏ مر 5 4 ‎Es \ BB‏ ‎i \ Ea‏ ‎Bas !‏ 2 ‎ws =* 0‏ ۳ ۰ ‎a a wht te ew 8‏ ‎Temperate Temper 0 

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انس رترب رت ی ان رز فلت تفگ اكثي قلع بقث سوماتيك يستقى دود يرخى زعام ‎ln‏ يسار ‎nce tne cal‏ یش دید سرد ۱ رد رن ند ‎“Aspergiids niger Rhizopus stolonifer wu?‏ ‎ctolonifer cscs a‏ شيعن امد ضح لي ‎guys oe‏ ق کر ‎hie curse nad seg‏ ای ‎Sacre”‏ هات بنیز ال ۱۷۶ امد این نت که ان ات ‎lop‏ هرا با نرم زحي هال ففدان كل امن هلوا ابر سرد اسه Sena lop wll pre ar expo 19° G2 ‏ماه‎ ‘The effects of extreme temperaturcs, however, depend on moisture content, metabolic activity, and age of the fungal propagule or somatic tissue. Some postharvest pathogens that can only grow above 5°C. (41°F), such as Rhizopusstolonifer and Aspergillus niger, have developmental stages that are sensitive tolower temperatures. Although nongerminated spores of R. stolonifer may not be adversely affected by low temperatures, most spores that have started to germinate are killed within several days at 0°C (32"F) (fig. 17-6). This cold sensitivity, along with wound healing, Is believed to ha rarnancinia Far tha General absence of Rhizopus "gure 176 Femoved from cold storage, (avout! ineubation 825°C (FPP eran om Wan Sd Sommer 1967) 

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ی اكثر قارجهاهوازى اجبارى هستيد كه موتوئند فلظث اكسيزن كم را تحمل كنند © و ‎ly COZ‏ تنفس و رشد طبيعى ‎UNV) gag lg a Fd Lge‏ 20 سرکوب میرن بسياري أ ح‌ه درفب کال رش شعیی ار له نی سور با یش فلت از ۱۰۰۰ با« هه ریب رای 06۲6۵ 50001666 .۳ زو بویا ۹۷۰ افرايشمىيابد اراين. رشد کلی تست بهجونه نها به ‎SPR GD Mec‏ اتوسط 01176 جو متوسط اسث. كه ولا یش ‎J STNG‏ ا رو ل ا 5 19001066013 .04 سارو همان 4090 شه قبل توج اه يا ‎oe‏ زه خيلى كم در نظر كرفته مى شهد Most fungi are obligate aerobes that can tolerate low ‘oxygen concentrations. 0, and CO2 are required for normal respiration and growth. Although fungi are suppressed by elevated (10-20%) CO, levels, many fungi grow poorly in its complete absence because the gas is required in a number of physiological pathways. Oxygen requirements of fungi can differ between species, as well as between growth stages ofa single species. For example, mycelial growth {and spore germination Increase with Increasing O, Concentrations from 0 104% or ۵ to 1%, respectively for B. cinerca and A. stolonifer (Wells and Usia 1970). Thus, ‘mycelial growth generally requires higher levels (4x) of ‘oxygen than spore germination. Suppression of fungi by a 2% 0, atmosphere is modest, often no more than about 115% below the rate of growth in air (21% 02), as shown in fig. 17.7 for B. cincrca and M. fructicola (Sommer etal 1981). Significant growth reductions result isthe ©, level is, lowered to 1%, but this is generally considered too low to be tolerated by most fresh commodities, 

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‎hl ly‏ غلب احتمال أسيب ‎J ats ply ag‏ رف کوچکر اقب با محمولات حساس بهکبودیاسفاه م‌شود ‎ ‎OGOEEEDEOT OF 000۵۵00667 DBOBYE BY PLYEION DOTMLODS ODO GOORODDBONE ۵ ‏مدیریت پوسیدگی پس از کشت بر اساس روش‌های فیزیکی و اصلاحات محيطى ‎CROP OR COMMODITY HANDLING ‎Basic cultural practices such as harvest dale (crop maturity) and methods of harvesting have been established for most commodities. A generalized flow chart of postharvest handling and treatment of fruit commodities is shown in figure 17.8. The most important goals of all harvest and postharvest handling practices are the prevention of injuries and the delay of crop Senescence. Most postharvest pathogens enter fruits only through wounds. Thus, handling practices can directly affect the potential for decay to develop by allowing injuries to occur. Specifically, mechanically harvested crops provide more injured sites for infection than hand- harvested crops (Ogawa et al. 1963a). Decay control with chemicals is difficult and often impossible if crops are already infected at harvest, unless a systemic fungicide is Used. In addition, all efforts should be taken to avoid bruising and wounding during transport 10 the ppackinghouse and subsequent handling. Because bulk bins often increase the potential for bruise damage, smaller containers are often used for bruise-sensitive crops. 

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‎lal be le‏ بير شهن. مهم لست كه كالاه در اسرع وقث هر ‎ ‎ ‏درجاى ديكر اين فصل يابا جزثيات بيشثر در فصل 05 ار ‎lg De‏ تنظيم رشد. مقر گنها ابر مود شيمياى كه در توليد تبن تداخل ايجادمى كنندمى توت ‏ميزيان را كند كردة و يوسيدكى بس از برداشت را كد ‎tae ab gle oa aby laps‏ بي ‎ ‎ ‎During the sorting process, itis important to Femove all injured and decayed fruit that might ‘develop into foci for secondary infections. Proper packaging to prevent bruise damage is especially Important for fruit destined for distant markets (Ogawa et al. 1972). Consequently, handling procedures that minimize injuries enhance the ‘effectiveness of other postharvest treatments. ‎‘To delay senescence, itis important to cool the ‘commodity as quickly as possible to the lowest, temperature that does not cause injury Low temperatures delay senescence in climacteric and nonclimacteric commodities by slowing hast ‘metabolism (this is discussed in detall in chapter 13). Modified atmospheres are also important for Slowing respiration and other physiological processes that delay senescence (this is discussed briefly elsewhere in this chapter or in more detail in ‘chapter 14). Additionally, treatments with growth reg. ulators or other chemicals that interfere with the production of ethylene can stow senescence of host tissue and reduce postharvest decays (see the section Plant Growth Regulators" in this chapter). ‎ 

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اصلاحات محیط فیزیکی ی محيطى كه معصول در أن بكزار م شود معصول غير مستفيم و محصول ا تحت تائير ار مود شنز سل ران ورد ع مريت شنک کنیا هو هسكاران ‎YT‏ تاميسون 1391 كلش دما كه به محصول أسيب لمورساتد در مشيريت أكثر موامل بيمارى زا نسيار مهم اس از جمله مواردى كه مى تود هر وكات كم دما رشد ‎Cincrea, M. pinformis was‏ ماسر ‎ass age Gall‏ تش از سوملزة ساي ‎POS‏ در ار سرد رخ ‎Sarre‏ ‎ag ig ange a‏ میکرو مها اند و لاج محيط قيزيكى شامل عمليا حوارتى اسث. معمولاً ايها درمائهاى كوناه مدث بيأى موقل كردن أسيب رساتدن به كلا لست اصلاح محيط با تيمارها اقا ۳9۵ :06 0:05 00001061000110 ۵00۵0۵0 ‘The environment in which the crop is held aller harvest affects both the crop and the pathogen. Usually, quick removal of field heat by hydrocooling or forced-air cooling reduces the rate of ripening, as well as the growth of ‘microorganisms (Mitchell et al. 1972; Thompson 1992). ‘Temperature reductions that do net injure the crop are critical in the management of most pathogens. including those that can grow at low temper atures, such as M. pinformis and B. cinerea, because the rate of grovith of these fungi is greatly decreased. When chilling or freezing Injuries occur in cold storage, however, fruits may be predisposed to infection by microorganisms. Other methods for modification of the physical environment include heat treatments. Usually these are short-term treatments to inactivate the pathogen or pest without damaging the commodity Modification of the environment by chemical or biological treatments that are inhibitory or antagonistic to the decay-causing organism is also an important strategy for postharvest decay management. Various aspects of this, strategy are discussed in later sections. 

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ذخیره سازی دمای سرد. چ۹ ابراى ‎JAS‏ بيمارى بس از يرداشت بسيار حباتى لسث به طورى كه ساي وشهای کنترل به ‎alle alg‏ ناب توصي شدء ند دون به ‎i‏ ادن ار رات مهم است.مای بان رشد آهستهآهسته و هر بو 0 ‏سي‎ ge, زد حدقل دما بای رش قارع وت جابی ات که قبل از ممرق jose asian gid ‏دست‎ nfl ‏زي امن ده‎ pe ‏در سین‎ a ag Jot ‏اب دما ای تب‎ ‏فيزيولوزيكى من‎ a ape aE ale onl ht Och! teepercture rior ‘Temperature management is so critical to postharvest, disease control that all other control methods have been described as supplements. Without minimizing the importance of other control measures, it can be said that temperature management is central to all modern postharvest handling systems. Low temperatures slow sungal development and maximize the potential postharvest life of the commodity. The ideal objectives of refrigeration for disease control are to lower the temperature below the minimum temperature for {growth of the fungus and to a paint at which infection development will not be completed before the fruit is consumed, or, in the case of cold-sensitive fungi, to Kill the spores while they are Germinaung. These ideals are often unattainable because the pathogens often tolerate lower temperatures better than their hosts. Pathogen development is merely delayed by the low temperatures that are best for maintaining the fruit in good physiological condition, 

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كال در يجال. رسيدكى به ميومهلى بدون دلايل بسيار ضرورى أسرع وق برداشته شود و ميوهها در كمثرين دملى قبل تحمل كالا خنگ شون اهمیت دشر وری درجهحرارث سرد ری میراد شکل ‎Wo EWA‏ ده اسثد تاتدها شان مهنده مقدار رول قهوه لي شكل “فته حر هلو بس از تأخير اسازى ميوه لست ياتفيير در تلفح با لسيورهاى 1,2110013 .4 ميوهيا بافاصله هر دماى ‎٠‏ درجه سانتيكراد(؟؟ درجه فارنهايت) قار داده شديا تدا هر ‎٠١‏ درجه ساننيكراد اك درچه فرهیت) ‎kM cas‏ سا ذخیرهشد و سپس در هرجه سالتيكراد قو كرفت . بس از حذف از انبار سرد و رو اكوباسيون هر ‎١3‏ هرجه ساننيكراد (٩۵درچه‏ فارنهايت» لبماك بيمارى قايل مشاهده بر روى ميوه ى كه بلافاصله در * درجه ساننيكرلة 5" درجه فارنهايث) قا سل که گیب رحتیفز بنمیرفت. در سوه دیگر دبا پس از ۶ روز گفته شده شا میدهد که جع تدك فاق ممكن اسث به ضابعا تبديل تشوتد زیر خک شدن بهسرعتکای ام یشود. جوا زنى اسيور يسيار كند الست و ممكن لست در حداقل دما راى رشد قلرج ار بين قلتان که در اجيز عمل م ىكتفد. ‘To obtain the full advantage of refrigeration, itis essential to handle fruits without delays: Field heat should be removed as soon as possible, and the fruit should be cooled to the lowest temperature tolerated by the commodity. The importance of immediate cold temperature storage for fruit is illustrated In figure 17.8. Data show the amount of brown rol that developed in peaches following delay's in fruit cooling Alter inoculation with spores of M. fructicola, the frult were either placed immediately at 0°C (32°F), or were first stored at 20°C (68°F) for 24 or 36 hours and then placed at 0°C. After removal from cold storage and 3 {days of incubation at 15°C (59°F), visible disease lesions had not developed on fruit that was immediately placed ‘at O°C (32°F), while decay was easily recog. nized in the ‘other fruit. Daia taken after 6 days show that the cllects ‘of delayed cooling extended into the normal marketing period, & high percentage of spore-contaminated wounds may not develop inte lesions is cooling is sufficiently prompt. Spore germination is extremely slow and may fall car the minimum temperature for growth of the fungus. Processes involved in establishing the infection are also ‘only marginally functional near growth-stopping temperatures. 

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لغيه اس در تچهممکن ات منجر به عات رج لو. قارئهابت) باشد اولين خنك سازى تا * درجة سركوب قارجها تفريي امل لسث. یات پوسیدگی ناشیا قارج‌های حسلی ب سم مسکن است رای هیده موق شود جلب است افيد براق به ات سفن عبر منم شک شدن در این تین درجه حیرت یمن آمریپیشرفته اس Low temperatures, while the fungus is still in its carly lag phase of growth, may consequently result Inlewer fungal lesions and delay their development. Even if subscquent transport is at about 5°C (41°F), there are advantages to first ‘cooling to 0°C because suppression of fungi is more likely to be nearly complete. Decay lesions caused by cold-sensitive fungi may be permanently halted. Funhermore, tocool to the lowest safe temperature is advaniageous for maximiz ‏يي‎ 

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فر جند سال كنشته تمايل به درماتهاى حرارتى يس از يد یش بات هس ین ند تلا برابياقتن ‎aly clare‏ جرمان هاي شيمياي ب أو أب كرم محدوديشهاى جدى دارند و مى تواند به طور بلقو يه ميوه أسيب برساتتد يا رتك ‎Vij shew bl‏ ‘Ded ond ‏همطل‎ ‎In the past few years, there has been an increasing. interest in postharvest heat treatments for management of fruit decay's (Barkai-Golan and Phillips 1991; Lurie 1998). This interest is in an effort to find alternatives to postharvest chemical treatments or to enhance the effectiveness of postharvest fungicide treatments. Most commodities tolerate exposure to water temperatures of, 50° 10 60°C (122° to 140°F) for longer periods than most fungi. Still, ht water treatments have serious limitations and can potentially damage or discolor fruit, shorten storage or shelf life, and increase susceptibility to pathogens. Additionally, the treatment does not provide any residual activity against recontamination of the commodity, and it retards subsequent cooling of the fruit. Hot water treatments may be noneconomicai considering the emphasis and effort that are placed on removal of heat fram commodities in cold storage. Hot water dips can be used alone or in combination with chemicals to reduce anthracnose of mangoes (Coates et al. 1993) and decays of stone fruit crops (Smith 1962; Wells and Harvey 1970), 

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‎I felt ey Jy Jar igh ods‏ اسطادهم كود حدق از لفن ‎ ‎ ‏ای فو فشار لست الرات 82 ير روى يمار هلى بيس از ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏ی ‎ais‏ 1 ی 80007501 ‎Carbon diotide, carbon monoxide, ethylene, and other‏ ‎gases such as ozone, Additionally, hypobaric‏ ‎atmospheres have also been used to extend storage life‏ ‎and consequenty to suppress decay, Ia close control of‏ ‎these gases is maintained, the synthetic atmosphere is‏ ‎commonly called a controled atmosphere (CA). Modified‏ ‎atmosphere (MA) is term that may desig nate any‏ ‎synthetic atmosphere, butit often is used if there is tle‏ ‎or no possiblity of making adjustments in gas‏ ‎Composition during storage or transportation, The‏ ‎purpose ofthese atmospheres is usually to extend the‏ ‎{ruts postharvest Iie by suppressing the rate of‏ ‎respitation. Another objective isto sup press diseases.‏ ‎‘The effects of MA on postharvest ciseases canbe either‏ ‎indirect or direct. For example, ethylene has an Indirect‏ ‎effect on decay by affecting the ripening ofthe‏ ‎commodity Ettylene concentrations can be reduced in‏ ‎storage atmospheres by using "scrubbers" (ethyl. ene‏ ‎tliminetors), ezone treatments, or by lowing frat‏ ‎metabolism in controlled atmospheres or temperatures.‏ ‎ 

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سا ل رفن علد ات بل د دربن هت رس عم مد رو ادى اكسيد كوكرد يلمسيد استيك (50101609 و هسكاران. كسيد كرين و محيطهابى 19/606816 اكسيز قرچی مود تا است. ارات کم کننده 0 کم در مها متخص شدن ۵ در کاهش میبی میا در سطوح بايين ترافزايشمىبابند هر ليرهاى لت سلج 0 معمولً در حدود 057( حلظ مىشود. هماتطور كه هزيلا ذكر شد فلظتهل. ‎OTE‏ سرکوب رشد قارج موثر است (شكل 107 را ببينيد. Maintenance of the fruit in good physiological condition may result in a fruit with considerable disease resistance. Oz. CO2, and CO can have direct effects on postharvest diseases. Thus, because the fungal pathogen requires Oz, as does the fruit, lowering the 02 or raising the CO, or CO concentrations can slow the ‘growth of a fungal pathogen. Only modified atmospheres that have a direct effect but are not lethal to the pathogen will be discussed in the following sections. Fumigation treatments with fungitoxic gases such as sulfur dioxide or acetic acid (Sholberg et al 11996) are discussed under "Management of Postharvest Decay's with Chemicals." below. Oxygen reduction, carbon dioxide elevation, and hypobaric atmospheres. Oxygen is required for normal respiration of both the fruit and the fungal pathogens. The benelicial effects of low 0, on fruit become evidentas O, in the atmosphere is decreased to 5% or below: benefits increasc at lower , levels. In CA storages the level of ©, is commonly. ‘maintained at about 2 to 3%. As mentioned above, 2% 0, concentrations are only modestly effective in 

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ی هوا معمولاً حاوى حدود 1/۰۲ 0 ترتع ۳0 پیش از نس محبوسی سرگوب می‌کند ار فلت 1002 نیع یشوه و نرب هبوت مان و دما ارتباط دارد ميوه مقادي يسيار بالاى 002 (بيش از ‎0/7٠‏ را ‎ls‏ بین ۳ درجه ساننيكراد تا ا رجه سانتيكراد (70 درجه ساتنيكر 1 هي 00 دش ام هل کل یگ بو کسترده ی ورد ار م‌یرد در درجه ال بای سرکوب 610663 .8 قاب خاکستری) و 1 ‎frucicola (rou brown)‏ و بای سیب 606/۵۵ :9 توت بر Air commonly contains about 0.03% CO... Elevation of Co, above about 5% noticeably suppresses fruit respiration. If the concentration of C02 is excessive, however, of-flavors develop and fruit injury results. The relationship of CO, Concentration to fruit injury is related to time and temperature. Fruit tolerate very high levels of CO2 (more than 20%) for several days at temperatures between 30 and 5" (380 and 41°F), but few tolerate those elevated concentrations if storage or transportation in the modified ‘atmosphere is extended for several weeks. The addition of 10 to 15% CO, at a temperature of 5°C (+1°F) commonly affects both host and pathogens in a manner roughly comparable to a temperature of 0°C (32°F) in air. CO2 added to air is widely used in transport of Bing cherrics, primarily to suppress B. cinerea (gray mold) and M. fructicola (brown rou), and it is used with strawberries to suppress B. cinerea. 

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هی ات کر توس ما تشر زو برس ید شام یت نسی 0ب تبرت ما سای ره تست ده ای بت رو وت ما و دم وت هرا كد ‎raced‏ ی ارم لاسکی مر اشدن يسيارى از كلاه يسيار كوت باشد نا بتو پوسیدگی اش Humidity Water vapor is a gas that constitutes an important part of the atmospheric environment of harvested perishable commodities. Its amount in the atmosphere as 2 percentage of saturation (relative humidity: or RH) varies widely with temperature changes, Although the RH of storage facilities is generally ever at saturation, free water can occur on the surface of commodities. Liquid water forms is at any time during the normal temperature cycling within a refrigerated storage room the temperature of the commodity surface falls below the dewe point temperature of the atmosphere. With pathogens such as 11. fructicola, saturated atmospheres or water on the fruit surface favors spore germination and direct penetration of commodities. With jacketed storage or packages with moisture barriers of plastic film, high RH may be a factor in promoting disease is temperatures are favorable, 

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0806۷۵ 60۵۲۲۲۷۵۵۵۵۵۲ 06 20866۵6866060۲ ‎CLEOICOLS‏ ‏پوسیدگی در پساکشت با مواد شیمیایی Presently, chemicals are essential for protecting food quality and for preventing crop losses from decay (see Ogawa and Manji 1984). Fresh perishables need protection from the time of harvest until the time of consumption or processing. Without chemicals much of ur produce would never reach the consumer. The use of chemicals is a method of modifying the environment of the fruit surface either by removing inoculum as a sanitation practice or by inhibiting the growth and ‏خرن وید دنق اه سس ري زع اها يان الريك ملت كارت رطق‎ reproduction of plant pathogenic organisms by ‏هر بيش از يك دسته قرار م ى كيرند.ماتد يهناشث و هرمان. در يندهاى يعدى. مواد‎ prevention (e.g., protection), suppression, or therapy of infections. Suppression is the inhibition of development, whereas therapy is the eradication of established infections. Some treatments have more than one mode of activity and thus sit into mare than one category; such as a sanitation and protective Treatment. In the following paragraphs, chemicals will be discussed in the section That best describes their usage. Chemical. treatments of hanesicd produce must be used properly for greatest effectiveness and salary: The current status of chemicals available for postharvest use and methods Used to obtain effective control of postharvest decay will be discussed. Some of the early postharvest treatments, that do not met modem safety standards are no longer شيميالى در يخشى كه كاربرد آنها را به يهثرين وجه توصيف مىكند. مورد بحتقرا مر 

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‎ras ‘one‏ ترس سس هم سوت ‎‘patent 6 Ivete ena‏ ‎yn te within op nin ave‏ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏اه مسج سوه ‏تمه سر ‏سس مرح ‎۳ ‏مه ‎Paki rs.‏ 3-3 اس ري سدسم م مومه ‎ha‏ مايه ‎ap‏ اا ‎Gps‏ 189 لوس فامسعة ‎| ‎ ‎ 

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وهای هداشتی ال دنن‌هایی آست هبامت گاهش جمعیت میک توليد. ميوه وب شستشو ری تب ردن یه م‌شود.شسنشوی اب ه هی مود را از سطوح توليدى كه به "ميكرواراتيسمها” امكان رشد ميدهد. حذف مىكندو أزدرمانهلى بهداشتى. بتانسبيل مجدد برا 1 sm gad ‏بوسيده از سعلح ميودها ا كافش م دهند شامل‎ lope a ‏لسبورهاى حاصل از ميوه يا خاک را فيرفعال كرده وا اتنشار تنوه تلفيح در آب جلوكيرى‎ ‏م ىكند تمونههابى أز مستشوىهاى ضدعفوتى كتنده شامل تركياتهالوزنه ايه عنوان‎ ‏مثال. اسيد هيبوكلروس از كاز كلي يا سديم هييوكلريت و كلو دى الكسيد كلر) و أب لزن خار‎ ‏درمانهاى بهداشتى براى تجهيزات و أمكانات ذخيره سازى شامل شستشوهاى‎ Sal ‏أمونيوم کات و بو با كازهاى سمىدراى عوامل بيمارى زاى قارجى مائند قرمالثيد و‎ eons 660011511000 Sanitation practices include treatments lo reduce populations of microorganisms on equipment, on the frult, ‘nd in the wash water used to clean the fruit. Water washes alone will remove nutrients from produce surfaces that allow’ microorganisms to grow and it also removes Inoculum of postharvest pathogens. Without the use of sanitation treatments, however, the potential for reinoculation of produce is high. Sanitizing treatments Include treatments that are used for frult and equipment and treatments that are used only for equipment and storage facilties. Sanitizers that reduce inoculum levels of decay organisms from fruit surfaces include treatments added to water dumps and spray or dip washes. These treatments inactivate spores brought into solution from {rut or soll and prevent the secondary spread of inoculum In water. Examples of sanitizing washes include halogenated compounds (e.g., hypochlorous acid from chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide) ‘and ozonized water. Sanitation treatments for equipment and storage facilites include quatemary ammonium. washes and fumigations with gases toxic to fungal pathogens such as formaldehyde and ethylene oxide. 

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شوی بهداشتی كلرزنى محلويهاى أبى حاصل از هييوكلريت سدیم( 130 هیکرت کسیم ts HOCH pot Ch gs jou CalOCH2) ‏م كنت از أنها در جايجانى ميوه يس از ار یس بهداشتی با‎ ‏استفاده ا اسيد هييوكلروس يكى از موثرتين» زان تین و یبای ماد تین‎ ‎oy Se fog a‏ نلشى از اب شستشور سطع ميودهاى فير أسيب د ‎ ‏ى به سرعث و به طور اختصاصى مواد كيينى را ذر محلو هاي ی کسید میکند و در یه فلت قرع كل وشح باكر ليجل كد لول ماق اس ‎ ‎ ‏أنكه بتوائد عامل بيمارى زا ا فيففال كنم به سرعت در مواد مخدر ميوه كاه ‎ple age‏ کات کسید گنه مان دی کسید کار بان درب از زن ا ای ‏او وجود مواد ألى و فير الى ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏۱۱۵6۱ + 0۷دلاح> ‎NaC! + H,0‏ فيدر وكسيد ديم جنا شذه و 014 با 1400 خنتی ‏يوتهاى خود در تعادل الستد ‎HOC! <> HR + OCI‏ ‎ ‏كا ‎Chlorination. Aqueous solutions obtained from sodium hypochlorite (NaOC!), calcium hypochlorite (CalOCH2), oF Chiorine gas (Cl) produce the microbial biocide hypochlorous acid (HOC). They have been used extensively in postharvest handling of frut. Sanitation using hypochlorous acid is one of the most effective, inexpensive, non residual ways to reduce ‘microbial contamination from wash water, noninjured fruit surfaces, and equipment (White 1992). Hypochlorous acid rapidly and nonspecifically oxidizes carbonaceous materials in ‘aqueous solutions, resulting in fungicidal and bactericidal ‘activity. Solutions of hypochlorous acid, however, are relatively ineffective in reducing decay ifthe inoculum is inside the wounds of the fruit. The compound is rapidly reduced in fruit Indunas before it can inactivate the pathogen. Other oxidizing compounds such as chlorine dioxide, ozonized water, or azone {gas have similar advantages and disadvantages in decay ‘management. Three factors control availabilty and activity of hhypochlorous acid: pl, temperature, and the presence of contaminating organic and inorganic materials. As sodium (or Calcium) hypochlorite is added to water, hypochlorous acid and sodium hydroxide are produced: ‎NaOCl + ۱۱۵ <>NaoH + ۵6۱ ‎The sodium hydroxide dissociates and OH Is neutralized with HCO, that naturally occurs in water. Based on pH, hypochlorous 

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‎LOCI , HOC! ("OCH Js‏ مقبار كل هيب وكليوس يا كلر الي يك تركيب ضدعفونى كننده موثر لسث در حالى كه 06 شد عفوتى كننده ضميفى است. غلفات كلر فال بتانسيل الكسيداسيون محلول و قهرت ضدعفونى كنتده أن راتعيين مىكند در 01 بالا مقدا كل قعال به طور جشسكيري كاهش مويابد ا لين وجود. 4م كم (به نون ما 3۰6 )جرب را شدن کر به عتوان كلرامين شواهد شد هر ‎«PH 2 Se LPH‏ کار کر( ‎Sede‏ ‏که سار میا یت استه در حالت ايده آل سطح ‎EFS gu PH‏ !يايد حفط شود هييوكلريت در ملول وجود بات کر زد نیت ه شپایط یه ل مود تا استه یک مجدود 8 10 ‎Seas PHT‏ حفط وقايل قبول لست. علاوه بر اين ]م بار ياعث كاهش تشكيل كارلمين هلى فر ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎‘Thus, the pil of the solution determines the proportion of "active" chlorine, as opposed to the "inactive hypochlorite lon (OCI). HOC! and OC! together represent the amount of "free" chlorine. Hypochlorous acid, or active chlorine, is an effective disinlectant compound, whereas OC! is @ poor disinfectant. The concentration of active chlorine determines the oxidizing potential of the solution and its disinfecting power. At higher pH, the amount of active chlorine is dramatically reduced. & low pH (e.9. pH 3-6), however, wl result in the volatilization of chlorine as chloramines. At a very low pH (c.g. pH 2), chlorine gas (Cl) will be formed that is highly toxic or lethal. ideally pH levels between 6.5 and 7.5 should be maintained, because In this range equilibrium exists between hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorite ian in solution. Under packinghouse conditions, a pH range of 7 10 9 is commonly maintained and acceptable considering that longer exposure times or higher concentrations of free chlorine are required than lnder ideal conditions. Additionally, a higher pH reduces the formation of volatile chloramines, which are eye lnrtants to packinghouse workers. 

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مر لت سید هروس و زا تعاس تز ی یرد ‎eS BU Bok ae‏ مرش هوا نهر استهحرکت. اما .بيشثر أسيد هيبوكلروس رخ مى دهد. كالاها ا متوان در سانتكراد (15 درجه فارتهايت) شستشو دا (هيدروكولرهانى كه در ای كر كل - كل زد كر فال + ار )اتکی كلر تركيبى شامل تشكيل كيروأميدينهاسته HOCI + RNH, <> RNHCI + ۵ ‎yh ni any Se‏ تیستند ‎gl Je gal‏ مها دز عيض چند ثانيه به كلرقعال در أب تميز واكنش ‎Sleep aS‏ ‏ل( ‎٠٠‏ درجه سانشيكراد يا د درجه فارنهايت) ومواد آلى موجود در أب ین افت کر ال را رد ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎‘Temperature also affects hypachlorous acid concentration and contact times: shorter exposures are required with warmer temper. atures but greater volatilization of hypochlorous acid occurs. Commodities may be washed at near (0°C (32°F) (hydrocoolers used in fresh market commodities). 5°C (41°F) (dump tanks), or at ambient temperatures. The effect of pH and temperature on the amount of available chlorine is shown in table 17.3, Furthermore, organic and inorganic materials suspended in water, includ. inglatation salts that are used in the pome fruit industry, may interfere with the oxidation of microbial inoculum. At high levels of these ‘materials, longer contact times or higherconcentrations of hypochlorous acid are required for disinfestation. Nitrogenous compounds (e.g... amines, ammonia, and amino acids) in the wash water decrease the amount of active chlorine and may result in the formation of Undesirable combined” chlorine, The amount of chlorine in wash tanks can be described as: ‎total chlorine = free chlorine (active chlorine + inactive chlorine) + combined chlorine Combined chlorine includes the formation of chioramines (NHC ‏ا(‎ ‎ ‎HOCI + RNH, <> RNHCI+H20 ‏اد برس ‎aca‏ ‎ 

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‘Additional factors affecting the activity of chlorine solutions include the type of microorganism and ‏ميد ل لشاقى موثز ب قغاليت متعلول هلق كا شل نوع ميكروار كفيس و من‎ Contact time. In general, higher concentrations of ‏ماس اسثه به طور كلى, فلت هاى بلاتر كلر فال متجر به غيرقعال شدن‎ active chlorine result in inactivation of microbial ‏جمعيث ميكيوبى با زمان تعاس كوتاهتر مى:‎ ‘populations with shorter contact times. 5 ‏ميكروا كيس وهابى كه ساختارظلى زنده مانمن با دبا‎ Microorganisms that form thick-walled survival ‏تک رت را‎ go lang ae structures or spores, however, may require longer ‏اشته بش كرجه راي أز بين يردن اركانيسوعاى فر حال تجزيه.‎ Contact times for disinfestation. although ‏بر ی سا ره‎ Hod ‏یی‎ aes ‘minuteconcentrations of 1 ppm HOCI (1 ppm ot Fan geaNaOCl porn HOCL 3a ye tactan hs active chlorine) are required to kill decaycausing 2 ‘organisms in clean water in the laboratory, higher ‏جب خورده میور بشتر تج‎ 910۱ DBM مى شود براى جبران ‎a lB al Sh‏ مقدار مخصول تصفية شد ‎concentrations of 25 ppm HOCI from generic NaOCl!‏ وموك الى جمع شده در أب شستشو در طول تيمر برجسسعاى خاص محصول ‎ppm from labeled NaOCl are commonly | ١‏ 200 10 50 ۲ ‎Sak‏ شده بای فده در کی معین را تین می‌کند ‎sed for most commodities to offset changes in the‏ و ‎‘amount of crop treated and organic matter‏ accumulated in the wash water ‏بي ل ين‎ Specific crop labels determine. Table 173.tfecrol pi and epee on const of acne registered for use on a given ‏و‎ 09 scent tv ore 3 awe awe 0 ore, sen een ‘ 5 a 68 : we ۳ Ba : 3 2 1 

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Chlorine dioxide is another biocide that has been evaluated as a postharvest sanitation treatment. This compound is as effective or more effective than free chlorine. Because it does not mix with water, it does ‘not react with ammonia to form chloramines or with organic compounds to form trihalomethanes (THM) Such as chloroform, Furthermore, chlorine dioxide is relatively unaffected by pH in a range of 6 to 10 Unfortunately, there are several disadvantages - 10 chlorine, Including: + Because the compound needs to be generated on-site, itis generally more expensive than chlor. + Some generators produce free chlorine (in addition to chlorine dioxide) that may also react with organic ‘materia to form THM. + Although chlorine dioxide does not produce THM, the compound produces its own set of breakdown ‘products (e.0. chlorite, chlorate) that may pose a direct threat to human health + Simple assays for routine evaluations of concentration are not available. + Chlorine aioxide is toxic to humans, and it commonly forms noxious odors. Thus, chlorine dioxide must be used in closed systems or in well-ventilated areas away from packinghouse workers. Because of these concems, recommended rates are less than 1 ppm; however, rates of 3 to § ppm Probably the best usage of chlorine dioxide is in foams for washing and disinfecting equipment. ‏ر اس كه به عنوان يك روش بهداشتى بس از برداشت محصول ارزيابى شده اث‎ ‏كران اجا م كند يبا تركيات الى تشكيل نرى هالومتانها ماتد كلروقرم ماه بای دی كسيد كثر هر محدوفه لا‎ تست نحت تأر 6 قار نم ى كيرد ستأسفه. جندين معايب وجود كار - ‎٠١‏ دی آکسد کل ازجم 5 م‌کند عله يردي الكسيد ركه سكن ست با مود الى نيز ونش ناد * كرجه د ىأكسيد كلر ‎THM‏ توليد نم وكند اين لركيب معصولات تجزيد لى خاص خود ا ويد م ىكند ويه ل سمه يجلد موكند دو از كلركان بسته بندى استفاده شو مق رل ری کر مر ‎patel‏ fpf a ay MS lJ ‏ب‎ 

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ی تركيب يكى از قوى ترين هوامل اكسيد كنتده الست كهديه طو مصول در دسترس | حدود ۱۵ یه است. مشاه دی اکیدکلر ‎PS ph ple ap alg Joe pal‏ رای از ین برد 1۵زهک) رای ۵ حقيقه غرار كرقئن هر مترض لسبيويا كوديا نت ترتيب 094 909+ جو محاميه كردن ‎a aly i)‏ كندده زخم ‎as GME‏ رمان (انند كلر و دى ايد كثر) ناتوان بو ازن يه طور كلى توسط ماهر تخاب تم شود. لما تجزيه أن با ‎ag SUP‏ از © ملا افزليش مىيايد. اش موی هنوز هم سکن مت جک م23 9 رخ دهد سیر سریع اس (سفید 61۹۹۲ آب شستو همچتین ی ری شدعفتی هن زنل مخطوط و یار شود ان مستیم از 1۳۱۵ ند تین ارچه در صورت وجوهالزن در ایر روش‌های ضدعقونی کننده اهب تلود ‎Otker‏ Ozone is another disinfecting agent recently utilized in postharvest water sanitation systems. This compound is one of the strongest oxidizing agents commonly available. The ‘compound is unstable at ambient temperatures and pressures, with a halflife of about 15 minutes. and it decomposes to 0, a temperatures greater than 35°C (95°F). Similar to chlorine dioxide, ozone must be generated on-site. Sports and Cervantes (1992) calculated LD, values (lethal dose to kill 95% of spores) for a $-minute exposure of spores of Mucor pirformis or conidia of Bourytiscinerca as 0.69 and 0.99 ppm, respectively. Ozone was ineffective for disinfesting wounds of treated commodities (similar to chlorine and chlorine dioxide). Ozone is generally not affected by pH within a range of 6 to 8, ‘but its decompasition increases with high pH, especially above pH 8. Disinfestation, however, may still occur at a high pH because the biocidal activity of the compound is relatively rapid (White 1992). Wash water must also be thoroughly ‘mixed and filtered for optimal ozone disinfestation. Ozone docs not directly from THM, although it may form them Indirectly if halogens are present in the wash water. 

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Furthermore, azone does form a number of non halogenated byproducts. The most serious drawbacks of ozone use include: + Ozone is lethal to humans with continuous exposure at high concentrations >+ pom): thus, detectors are required for automatic shutdown of the ozone generator. + Ozone is highly corrosive to common materials and often requires stainless steel containers. + Ozonated water must be filtered to remove organic and other particulate materials for effective disinfestation, Cationic detergents such as quaternary ammonium compounds, isopropy! alcohol live steam, or hot water {are currently used for equipment disinfestation. Quatemary ammonium compounds are not effective in Feducing decays of fru, but they are widely used in food-processing plants because they are microbial biocides with high water solubility and detergent properties. They also have low mammalian toxicity and are generally noncorrosive at recommended concentrations. The efficacy of live steam depends on tenergy during short exposure times. Extended exposures to heat treatments may injure the commodity. Isopropyl alcohol is less commonly ‏از محصولات جلبى غير هلوزن را تشكيل مىدهد اسلىترين مياد استقله رازن عبارتد لوهلا‎ las gl ple و كردن خو دكار زر انب تساه یاس و وا خر زوا ها زيست كشرهلى ميكروى باخاصيت حلاايث در ا ‎iy fan‏ بدي بساح أيه ‎baad Spf dled of‏ ند هگن آست رزی رای کشنده كمي رار زم بو قور رقن ع عرش که درد ار رشن در مرش وی مت هر ریم لیات حراتی سکن اس بلعث صدمه يه كالا شود ازور وبي الكل كمتر مورد استفاد قار مى كيرد ‎ ‏رد عق عع را تعن مدان دا كيد وي ‎ ‎ 

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ی Sega fl ys np lend yb Jad el lag sl sgl ‏سولو امن بات در حفظ و تگهدری از وی بای یه‌های نک‎ Jo ‏بو و‎ gd ‏محملات بسنگی بهمسیت‎ ly Sal ‏لنت أسظائه أ‎ 54 ‏در محصواتی ماد نكور يا تمشك. برخى ارقام نسيت به‎ ‏یک روش سار در حین نهدری‎ ‏ادن کایترهایخدل و تقل در یمهس رجا که ان خرن ای‎ gar ‏ورهاو ميسليوم هوابى قارجها مانند 100188 .8 قارجى است, مىتوئد تلفح رأ رو‎ ‏سطح ميودها غيرقعال كرده وازلانه سازى يا وسيدكى ميودهاى سالم مجلور ميودهاى‎ ‏وس گنوی کند. بای سمل فرمان پگ ای اقلا درم‎ ape Bad ARH sage aS ge eS os ‏حشيه إن بودلدء‎ استفاده از بخور یایی ذارد لسيد سولفور سمى به رأحنى از آب كارى هر أب تشكيل مى شود و بركشت تإيذير بع يروتلينهاى سلول متصل مىشود. به طور معمول. ‎٠1١‏ تا ‎٠.3‏ درصد (حجمى) كازيرد 50 مدت ‎©202١‏ مقيقه در لسع زقت بس از برجاشت وب بل آن اور 3ب مدت. 8-1 دقيفه هر نا ‎٠١‏ رورش اتبارانجام مى شود غلظتهاي معمول ‎eB) pas‏ ‎١‏ 50) كه در فواصل مكررتراستفاده شود (1 روز كمتر) كنثرل يهترى در عفونتهاى ‎Sl‏ توع نكور. علالم أسيب نشان مودهد كه توشها جه مقدار یل ‎Sp eta pt toh etal By‏ بان اد در اتاببسته بدی اسب ‎gant yay of‏ 502 رب ای انز دقت شو. نایک نگور در مدت زمان ‎ig‏ ‏02 استفاده موشود دصي سیخ با سنوی Other inoculum-reduction treatments include chemical fumigation to in enclosed areas. Sulfur dioxide (SO) has been used since antiquity in preservation, especially for dried frut. IIs Use on crops, however, depends on potential phytotoxicty and crop tolerance to the treatment, In crops like grapes or raspberries, some cultivars are tolerant to SO, fumigation. The treatment has been a standard practice during storage or for fumigating transportation containers in California since 1928 acob 1929). Because the treatment Is fungitoxic to spores and aerial mycelium of fungi such as B. cincrea, it can inactivate Inoculum on fruit surfaces and prevent nesting or decay of healthy fruit adjacent to decayed fruit (Nelson 1958). The treatment dors not, however, suppress decay In fruit that was, Infected prior to treatment. Sulfur dioxide is more ellective at high RH. The toxicant sumptuous acid is readily formed in water from gaseous SO, and irreversibly binds to cell proteins. Typically, a 0.1 to 0.5% (by - volume) application of So, for 20 to 30 minutes is made as soon as possible after harvest followed iby a fumigation of 0.25% for 30 10 60 minutes every 7 to 10 days in storage. Generally lower concentrations (0.05 to 0.19 of 0, applied in more frequent intervals (<7 days) gave better Control of Botrytis infections(Nelson and Baker 1963: Smilanick ‘and Henson 1992). Depending on the variety of grape, injury symptoms will begin to show when the berries have absorbed 2010 55 ppm S02, Because of the high polarity of the toxicant, Was riaiaine ‏مد دح وی ی ی ی‎ 

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ج11 ا وى جه ‎ub tiara satis‏ مک بم مع یتاعاس هت 01 ساي همان هاى يغور ذر ماطق محصور شامل لسيد استيك و اكسيدان هي در ‎SS ty ae‏ مد ات تون دهد( تیجه بات کلهش تقیع در جو یو وهای يزه محلى برأى ‎eats‏ ‏شهاى بخور اجازه مىدهد تا اسيورهاى بنسيليوم ا از بين برد از سرد كردن در بسته يندى مركبات. ب محدوديت دوبرنا ‎sight hand enn lbs ip ph dab‏ ‎a as at‏ كوكرد تيا است. يخارات اسيد لسنيك اخير قارجى براى كتثرل عوامل بيمارى زاى سيب و اتكور استاكين استفاده شد الست يكور سفره. اسيد استيك به طور كامل جوت زتی لسبورهاى 0673© 808/615 را كه روى سطع ميوء خشك شد نش مهار میک در ای كا كتفول ووسيدكي ريه 9002 يوط South Africa and countries in South America commonly use pads with plastic box liners when exporting to other countries. These pads contain sodium met bisulfite and allow slow release of SO, during transit and marketing, Other fumigation treatments of enclosed areas include acetic acid and oxidants such as gaseous ozone, formaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and propylene oxide. The latter two fumigants have been used in the past on dried fruit (Whelton et al 1946) and have been recently re-registered for selected dried food crops such as nuts and spices (ee table 17.2). Ozone will retard the growth of fungi on the fruit surface, reduce sporulation on decayed fruit (thereby reducing inoculum in the atmosphere), and destroy offensive odors. In California, a special local need registration for formaldehyde allows fumigation treatments to kil spores of Penicillium. on equipment in storage, during de-greening, and in precoaling facilities in citrus packinghouses, with a limit of two applications per year Alternatives to sulfur dioxide are needed because of concern with sulfide residues and potential phytotoxicity. Acetic acid vapors have recently been used experimentally as a fungi static gas for the control of postharvest pathogens of apples and table grapes (Sholberg et al. 1996), as well as Stitt Cate AED callie ‏اه ی‎ ack 

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جدول ۱۷۱و ۱۷۴ معاقط هستن. بیخی از تارج کش های ذكر شده نيز دارلى يك عمل گرا حتی ریش كن نی هستند که گاهی اوقت به رون ‎Jl‏ قارع کش بستكى دارد هرمن با عمل سوكوبكر يا زبين بنده . هرمان هاى يس از عفوتث السث عمل ‎Gls‏ كه ماده شيمبانى ب مقدار كاف و ربشه كن كردن عمل فيرقايل يركشت رشد قاچ متقض می عل ات نيد ملتسا عرد ل مو لي على درمتى موجود شيميانى يا فيزيكى هستند. ‎cp le ap‏ PREVENTION, SUPPRESSION, AND ERADICATION Preventive (protective) chemical treatments are predilection treatments that must be applied before the {uit is infected by the pathogen. These chemicals prevent the germination of fungal spores or inhibit mycelial growth. Generally; they are only effective il quiescent infections are absent, the inaculuru levels of decay organisms are low, and the fruit do not have excessive mechanical Injuries or insect damage. Most ofthe fungicides listed in tables 17.1 and 17.2 are protectants. Some of the fungicides listed also have a suppressive or even eradicate (therapeutic) action that sometimes depends on the ‘method of fungicide application. Treatments with ‘suppressive or eradicant action are post infection treatments; suppressive action inhibits fungi growth as long as the chemical is present in sufficient amounts, and ‘eradicate action irreversibly stops fungal development. The {few therapeutic treatments available are either chemical ‘or physical, Therapeutic treatments are most applicable to onperishable crops such as grain and dried fruits. Acetic acid propionic acid wash treatments kill organism ‘established in kemels and seeds of grain crops. 

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عملا ا[ يد هاب ا أسترهاى جعبه بلاستيكى استفاد می کت ان نت ها وى مابيمولفيث سديم مسد و بامث زد شدن آهسته 50 مر حين ساي همان هاى يغور ذر ماطق محصور شامل لسيد استيك و اكسيدان هي pl) alate I SES tage gy ‏ير هر كنكتم‎ قارجهلى موجود در سطح ميوهرا عقب مىاتدازد اسيور ,دهد ادر تتيجه باعث كاهش تلفيح در جو م شود) و يوه زنده را از بين موبردد در كليفتي ثبت تياز وه محلى براى فرمالئيد به روشهاى بخور اجازه مىدهد تا لسيورهاى ينسيليوم را از بين بيرئد در ردن وهر تأسيسا قبل اس کی رت ی مرا و یل ‎ip ph‏ لقييفسسلى وليه ‎sight hand enn‏ ‎a as at‏ كوكرد تيا است. يخارات اسيد لسنيك اخير تجربى به عتوان كاز قارجى براى كتثرل عوامل بماری زای سیب و نو 155 باالكور سفرى اسيد استيك به طور كامل جوله زن ‎cinerea tno‏ 8012105 را که روی سل موه ار میکند. در ال که كنتول يوسيذكي بيه $02 South Africa and countries in South America commonly use pads with plastic box liners when exporting to other countries. These pads contain sodium met bisulfite and allow slow release of SO, during transit and marketing, Other fumigation treatments of enclosed areas include acetic acid and oxidants such as gaseous ozone, formaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and propylene oxide. The latter two fumigants have been used in the past on dried fruit (Whelton et al 1946) and have been recently re-registered for selected dried food crops such as nuts and spices (ee table 17.2). Ozone will retard the growth of fungi on the fruit surface, reduce sporulation on decayed fruit (thereby reducing inoculum in the atmosphere), and destroy offensive odors. In California, a special local need registration for formaldehyde allows fumigation treatments to kil spores of Penicillium. on equipment in storage, during de-greening, and in precoaling facilities in citrus packinghouses, with a limit of two applications per year Alternatives to sulfur dioxide are needed because of concern with sulfide residues and potential phytotoxicity. Acetic acid vapors have recently been used experimentally as a fungi static gas for the control of postharvest pathogens of apples and table grapes (Sholberg et al. 1996), as well as Stun full: te icsts with: tebla guepes: acetic acid 

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درمان هاى بيشكيرقه و سركويكر در اين فعال مورد استفه براى ابن تيمارها شامل تركبيات معدنى و الى ساده و همجتين موادي با ساختارهلى الى بيجيده تواسث. قارع كفها مر اسن ساختار شيميانى أنها در كروههاني دسته بتدى مى شوند زب 06500 1998 مراجمه كنيد). تركييات موجود در هي كلاس داراى عملكردي مشاب ‎el Ina‏ بتزيديدازول هاو بيرازين ها مهمثرين كلاسهاق برخ از اين روشهاى درمفى قبل از يرداشت. ماندد ساببروديتيل و فعاليت خود را حثى يس از هبور ميوه از رید شستنو an pe laps ‏که سوه هب‎ Aan pg SS go از براشت محصول در نها محدودشده است , حمل می شود تيمارهاى قيل از يرداشث براى بر ارت همیت بشتری پد کرد اند اكرجه آنثى بيوتيك برلى كتترل بيعارى باكتوايى قبل از يرداشت استفاده مى ماد حالحام بای فده پس از راشت بت نشده ات ] may have more than one mode of activity, preventive and suppressive treatments are discussed together in the section. Active compounds used for these treatments Include simple inorganic and organic compounds, ‏5ه‎ well as materials with more complex organic Structures. Fungicides are grouped into classes based on their chemical structures (see Uesugi 1998). Compounds within each class have a similar mode of action that targets either a single site or multiple sites in the biochemical pathways of the fungus. For postharvest fungicides, the carbonates, phenols, dicarboximides, phthalimide, benzimidazoles, and piperazines are the most important “older” classes: new developments include the hydroxyanilids, phenylpyrroles, and strobilurins. Although most active as post harvesttrcalnicnts, some of these fungicides and others are also quite active against postharvest decays when they are applied before crop harvest. ‘Some of these preharvest treatments. such as yprodinil and tebuconazole maintain their activity even after fruits are passed through the postharvest washing process (Adaskaveg and Forster 2000). Therefore, preharvest treatments have become increasingly important for the export market when fruits are shipped to countries where postharvest treatments are restricted. Athough antibiotics for bacterial Uisesse control 

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PREVIOUSLY AND CURRENTLY REGISTERED FUNGICIDES FOR POSTHARYEEaat e514» ثبت شده Inorganic compounds such as ef@mental sulfur, sulfur dioxide, and potassium sorbate have been used historically with some انك ‎alld 55 la ope‏ ری شده. لیف گسترده ای از غعاليث را دارد اين تركيب از رشد جلوكيرى تم كند مكر ‎SEI gle bl JASN‏ eet cad ee sn a eee ats Aspergillus ,Rhizopus. Penicillium ie of toy le رجه فارئهايت) برأى قارج كوهى كن بنسيليوم ‘success for managing postharvest decays. Elemental sulfur has been used commercially with moderate success to protect peach fruit from brown rot infections. Because of potential phytotoxicity, inactivity against Rhizopus rot, and Improved fungicide treatments, sulfur is rarely currently used. Potassium sorbate, a common postharvest fungicide for ‘ried frult or processed foods, has a broad spectrum of activity. The compound does not prevent growth unless high ‘concentrations are used and sufficient chemical is absorbed ‘on the processed fruit to reduce initial colonization by decay fungi such as Rhizopus, Penicillum, and Aspergillus species. Some of the fist treatments used to control postharvest decays of citrus fruits were alkaline solutions of borax, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate. The ‘eflectiveness of these treatmenis is due to accumulation of alkali in potential infection sites on the surface of the citrus fruit (Eckert and Sommer 1967). In laboratory studies, recommended concentrations of borax were lethal to conidia, ‘of Peniciliurn species after a 5. minuto exposure at 43.5°C (220°), but only weakly fungicidal at 38°C (100°F. 

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رجه سانتيكرد ‎1١3‏ هرجه نهايت) براى قارج كوهى كونه يتسيليوم كشتده بود . لاجر 74 شرج سانتيكراد ‎1٠-(‏ هرجه فارتهايت) فقط قارج كش ضعيف يود هرمن يا تال ‎Col‏ استفاده مى شود محلول هلى كرم شده كربنات سديم يا بى مدیم کمی سمی تن ابن حال لين تيمارها خر طايه ‎٠‏ ‏يراى اسيورهى كوه ينيسيليوم سمى تيستند. هنوز هم تشان داد ش هلى درمقى تحت شرايط تجارى مثر هستنف ‎Smilanicky‏ ممكران 1350 95م ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏سولقات سديم.فنيل فاك (5088 تي قعاليث باقيمائدة لى در جلوكيرى ‏ود يس از هرمان ‏ باقيمتده ها در مكانهاى بلقو وى ميوه جمع مى شوتد واز جد يوسيدكى ناشى از تلفي يعد عامل يمار ‎at a) te‏ ني شود 5086 كاملأدر أب معلول است. در 10:3 ‎PH‏ يون فنات قتيل اف هر يفيل عت ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎In laboratory studies, recommended ‘concentrations of borax were lethal to conidia of Penicillium species after a 5-minute exposure at 43.5°C (10°F), but only weakly fungicidal at 38°C (100°F). Treatments with 6 to 8% borax that are either heated to 43.5°C (10°F) or not Finsed after treatment are effective for control Penicillium decays and stem-end rots caused by Diplodia and Phomopsis species (Eckert and Sommer 1967). Because visible residues of borax on fruit are not acceptable, commercial treatments are always rinsed with water. Borax is relatively insoluble in water, and this leads to application problems. Thus, commercial treatments usually use 4% borax and 2% boric acid at 43.5°C (10°F). Heated solutions of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate are slightly more toxic; however, these treatments are less toxic to spores of Penicillium species as compared to borax. Stil, these treatments have been shown to be effective under commercial conditions (Smilanick et al. 1997, 1999). Sodium orthe-phenylphenate (SOPP) also has residual activity in preventing fruit decay. After treatment, residues accumulate in potential infection sites on the fruit and prevent the development of decay from subsequent inoculation of pathogens. New wounds, however, dia nok: prokected:-SOPO i quite sntbie ١ ‏اجا‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ 

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بتزيمينازول ها (يتوريل . تيوقانت متيل ‎yt‏ كارتدازيم) كز هم ری ارت راى درمان هلى قبل ويعد از برداشث در ‎st‏ بدن. قرع کش طیف گسترد ای از فلت را رباج ها درد ‎Monilinia .Botrytis .Penicillium «ie of =‏ ‎ln Le 9!» L-Glocosporium , Ceratocystis‏ BS ‏معن ع مرق هس مايق كيبات محافظتى که‎ قبلا نبث شده بودن اقلابى يود و به ميزان كمتوى از كاري بيشترو عمل سوكوب تيار داشتند. هر حال حاضر. فقط تيابندازول هنز بای کر ان و تاره شاه روز وحر وا مساك مو + يسول لزعل عل بأل ‎Botrytis enerea‏ یت سیر ع كش دای کر ات ای کل دیپس رت ود رو (9101) يمرازين به طور كسترده لى در كنشته The fungicide is still registered, but itis now rarely used as a postharvest treatment because it must be applied as a wettable powder suspension at a high rate that often leaves unacceptable visible residues on the fruit. The benzimidazoles (benory|, thiophanate-methyl, thiabendazole, carbendazim) were another important group of compounds used for pre-and postharvest treatments in the past (Ogawa et al 11968: Wells and Gerdus 1971). The fungicide has a broad spectrum of activity against fungi. including Monilinia, Botrytis, Penicilium, Ceratocystis, and Glocosporium species, with both protective and suppressive action. When introduced, the benzimidazoles were revolutionary compared to the previously registered protective compounds, requiring lower application rates and having a greater activity and a suppressive action. Currently, only thiabendazole is still registered for postharvest Use on a variety of crops. The demethylation inhibiting (DMI) piperazine fungicide trisorine was widely used on stone fruit in the past for control of Monilinia spp. and is active against benzimidazole- resistant populations of the pathogens. It is not elleclive, however, against other decay fungi such Botrytis cinerea or Rhizopusstolonifer. Other fungicides extensively used for postharvest decay correlate pak are Eile: 

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‎tees Dichloro (DENA)‏ قد نستو بیرف الا ‎Rhizopusstolonifer 1‏ 350 مسا گنای 85120005 بسوإثر لستكستتززق ل ليخاكسزى بوسيدكوق هوه لعو ‎he tn‏ ‎ ‎ ‏از أتجا كه مجموعه اى از غوامل بيمارى زا معمولبامث يوسيدكى بيسن بداشت محصول میشود. سول 0006 عمرا يا دى كلريد در اير يوسيدكن ناشى از نه ا ‎Rhizopus ; Monilinia . Botrytis Peniciliium‏ ,, ‎fe pth Sige la Ine ig‏ از برداشت با 901004 و يتوميل هلو اشاقه ‏شده نت و هنکاان 41۹8۲ نی > مت بر رون خن برزيل مورد أزمايش قرار كرفت . ‎Colletotrichum spp tens‏ از هرمان بدون انول سركوب شد لين نشار ‎ln a‏ دیگر باون ال به نان ول" زب کنده تفه شون بان ال ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏در یات متعد ال یک ماد کنر شده أسث و تمى تواد هر شرمان على بس إز برقافت از آن فده شود تحمل بای 07000006 بای تارهای پس از سنگ در بالات متجده در سال ۱9۸۹ فیس ‎Dichloro (DCNA) is still registered and is most active against Rhizopusstolonifer, it is ineffective ‘against other Rhizopus species (Ogawa et al 1961; Ogawa et al. 1963b; Weber and Ogawa 11965). Control of gray mold, brown rot, and. Penicillium decays is unsatisfactory. ‎Because a complex of pathogens usually causes postharvest decays, mixtures of fungicides are commonly used in management strategies. Thus, mixtures of benomyl. thiophanate-methyl, or iprodione with dichloride were very effective against decays caused by species of Monilinia, Botrytis, Penicillium, and Rhizopus on stone fruit when applied pre- or postharvest (Ogawa and English 1991). In an attempt to increase chemical coverage and penetration into infection sites, ethanol has experimentally been added to postharvest treatments with DCNA and benomyl for peaches (Feliciano et al. 1992). When this treatment was tested on peaches in Brazil established infections of Colletotrichum spp. was suppressed more effectively than by the treatment without ethanol. This suggests that other protectant fungicides may be used as suppressants by the addition of alcohol as wetting ‘agents. In the United States, however, ethanol is a controlled substance and cannot be used in postharvest. trestments/;A residue tnlerence for: ‎ 

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W FUNGICIDES FOR POSTHARVEST USE قارچ کش‌های جدید برای ستفاده در پساکشت Currently, more new fungicides are being developed, Introduced, and registered for use for fungal disease ‘management than at any other time in the history of agriculture. These new tools were designed with awareness and criteria for greater environmental and human safety than older fungicides. Many of the most recently introduced fungicides offer the promise of lower application rates, greater efficacy against target pathogens, minimal effects against non-target organisms, short persistence or nonreactivity in the environment, and greater worker and consumer safety during exposure than older fungicides. After the cancellation of the postharvest registration of iprodione, representatives of the new classes of fungicides were also evaluated for postharvest use. Some of these compounds are now available for use on selected crops or will be made available within the next few years. In 1998, an emergency registration was obtained for postharvest Use of fludioxonil on stone fruit crops. Fludioxonil belongs to 2 new class of fungicides, the phenylpyrroles. Itis highly active against all major posthar. vest decays, including bbrown rot, gray mold. - Rhizopusrol, Penicillium decays and decays caused by species of Gilbertella and Mucor that previously could not be controlled with existing fungicides (Forster and Adaskaveg 1999). Thus, Audioxonil has the ‎Geet ot hue leak Pate‏ ده و سم یی و ل ل 

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ی نگرانی در مورد ایمنی درمان های شیمیایی انگیزه اصلی ایجاد روش های کتترلبیووزدکی با استفاده از موجودات متضادبوده است. اب یسم ‎SUA eet Di cade ae‏ قارع هاى رشته اى هستيد. اكرجه آنها به راحتن در أزمانشكاة شناسايى مى شوند اما انتقال از تضاد مشاهده شده در آزمایشگاهبه کنقرل موققیت آمیز در مجیط بستهبني آزمایشگاهی تعریف شده و در نهایت به اجرای موئر در تلد نجاری کشاورزی کار دشواری بوده اسث. در روند توليد مقادير زبادى از اركانيسم کنترل بیولوزیکی راش زشيكى اركائيسم اصلى كتشرل بيوكيسيس مى توايد بأعث أز بین رفتن صقاتی شود که برآی توسحه موققیت آمیز تجازی ضروری ‎ln pale aan‏ کتترلبیووزیکی ,با قعل و انفعاات ‎carp‏ ‏میکرویی و وابستگی آنهابهمحیظ خاص. شرایظ رواب هنوز ‎Sear‏ ‏شرایط ضعیف است (لارکین و همکاران 1898).باران ‏ فقط چند کتترلبیولوژیکی با موققیت در مقباس تجاری معرفی شده اند جالش هاى کنترل بوسیدگی بولوزیکی پس از برداشت با جالش هاي کتتل بیماری در ین زمینه متقاوت نت بهعنوان عذال + استعمار سطح میوه توسط آتاگونیست قبل از بداشت برای مذبریته موفلیت پونیدگی بس از برداشنت مطلون آمنت. بپران .زعت خلس که در حين برداشت و دست زدن به بد از برداشت اقاق می آفند می ‎ala paul lag slg?‏ پوسیده از عقوت محاقطت شوند. در ننيجه , قبل از برداشت پاوژن, درمان های قبل از برداشت. با کنترل های زیستی به عنوان یک روش کاربردی برای رساندن عامل كنترل بيوكنترل به سطح ميوه بيشتهاد شدهء بوشش عامل كنترل. ‎nein tee‏ ايا نيع دل سمت أو دين بوي ‎ ‎ ‎09۵۵۵۵0۵0 OF FOSMLBROGEN OCOGYE OFM 010,06:10460, 0600701: ‎Concems about the safety of chemical treatments has been the primary motivation for developing biological control methods Using antagonistic organisms. These antagonistic organisms Include bacteria, yeasts, and occasionally filamentous fungi ‘Although they are quite easily identified in the laboratory the transition from antagonism observed in the laboratory to successful control in defined experimental packinghouse ‘environments and ultimately to the effective implementation in ‘commercial production agriculture has been dificult. In the process of praducing large amounts of the biacontral organism, ‘genetic drift of the original biocontrol organism can result in loss of traits that are essential for successful commercial ‘development. Biological contro! mechanisms, with their complex ‘microbial interactions and dependency on specific environ. mental conditions, are stil poorly under stood (Larkin etal 1998). Thus, only few biological controls have been successfully introduced on a commercial scale. ‎‘The challenges for postharvest biological decay control are sifferent from those for control of diseases in the field. For ‘example, colonization of the fruit surface by the antagonist before harvest is desirable for successful postharvest decay management. Thus, wounds that occur during harvesting and postharvest handling could be protected from infection by decay ‘organisms. Consequently, preharvest treatments with biocontrois have been suggested as an application method to ‘falar thie blocankrol-agerk to the fruit avtece tetare thie: 

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مكانيسم هاى توصيف شده براى كنثرل بولوزيك شامل رقات . نت يوثيز فى انث وى تلوت ما بن مك ها سكن ست مار تيع فاب . بيشتيك نه لست كك يك ماع فيزيكى از مل علينت از يدك عامل بيمارى جلوكيرى مى كند وقثى أتاكونيست در مقاديركاقى در زمان و مكان مناسب وجود داشنه باش . رقبث مى تند يك مكائيسم رل بو ‎asl‏ نثى بيوتيس ‏ محصولات منالوليكى مقند سموم ‏ أنتى بيوتيك ‎eg il‏ مى شوتد ریسم دیگری را مهار از بين مى بيند. را ابتك مكانيس التخابى كتترل ببولوزيكى باشد .اين Mechanisms described for biocontrol include competition, antibiosis, parasitism. and induction of host resistance. These mechanisms may reduce the amount of pathogen inoculum, protect the infection site, limit disease development alter pathogen infection, or induce resistance in the host. Competition between microorganisms can be for either nutrients or space. For space competition, it has been suggested that a physical barrier of the infection site prevents the infection of the pathogen. Competition can be an effective biocontrol mechanism when the antagonist is present in sufficient quantities at the proper time and location. In antibiosis, metabolic products such as toxins, antibiotics, or enzymes are secreted by the antagonist that inhibits or kills ‘another organism. To be an elective mechanism of biological control, these inhibitory metabolic products must be secreted at the site of interaction between pathogen and biocontrol agent. Additionally, the products must be present in sufficient amounts to be inhibitory. Parasitism occurs when the antagonist feeds on or grows within the pathogen, resulting in the direct destruction or lysis of pathogen structures Induced resistance of the host plant occurs when the biocontrol agent induces physiological changes in the hast that render it less susceptible to infection of the pathogen. These changes may 

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برداشث دو تيمار كثرل ببولوزيكى هر حال حاضر اثبث شده اسث (جدول 0177 810-518 يك اماد عامل ‎les Sil J‏ مولي برد براي ماه سای انخير 01008003 090903 ‎gles‏ وتات نهل ‎aye td‏ یی تجری 058105216 متا اس ماد سر ای کی ان وهای ری عر به و كم از دی سوه ‎ant‏ ور كلى. كر لهلى بويك قط با تل تاي تسرك فق ری تلا ‎pa‏ حال سا نب سح کل لل یاس با های موی را ند ماه کی مازی توددکن مرح کل وک و ما مت ادها هد سوم دقع یی پیش دا ‎aye ae ite al os allt‏ For postharvest use two biological control treatments are currently registered (table 17.4), Bio-Save is a preparation of the antagonistic bacterium Pseudomonas syringe. Itis used on citrus, cherries, pome fruits, and potatoes for control of a range of decay organisms. 8 combination of biological control and calcium treatments was more effective for control of postharvest Penicillium decay of apples than Using the biocontrol agent alone (Janisiewicz et al. 1998). Aspire is a preparation of the yeast Candida olcophila and is registered on pome fruits and citrus. The commercial efficacy of Bio- Save and Aspire has been inconsistent. Like other biological controls these treatments never completely prevented fruit decay. In general biological controls only provide a partial level of control with results that are often inconsistent (El-Gaouth 1997). Currently, they do not provide levels of control comparable to synthetic, fungicides (Mari and Guizzardi 1998). In addition, there is no curative activity, and their Use is sensitive to pathogen concentration (Roberts 1994). For commercial applications, manufacturers of biocontrol treatments, as well as researchers, have suggested their use in conjunction with chemical pesticides (Droby et al. 1998). To date, biocontrols should be ‏و اه ی و محمد‎ 

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تفا ‎bd ides aes‏ یه ای بای سفاده از ماد شيميايى مصنوعى (به هنون مثال. قارج كششها براى ‎Fie SAS‏ وش هلى بيولوزيك توليدمىشود. ‎Gl) hp‏ منابوليتها أننى بيوتيكهاى طيف كسترفه ل هت بل و همكاران 144#: جانيسوي و همكاران 1991 اينكه ی لین مواد يا ساير تركياك مكانيسوهاى كنثيل بيولوزيكى هسنتد مشخص ‎el‏ امكان بذيرمى كد احثمالً در فلظشهاى بابين وجود دارئد هنوز ايده ‎eal ca ‏بيلى يفي‎ sean Sell ‏کیب با تجهب رات مقی هل ازایلستند مدق‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎The use of biological controls is not necessarily the ultimate alternative to the use of synthetic chemicals (ie., sungicides) lor postharvest decay control of horticultural crops. A debate is, developing on the use of these biological versus chemical methods of decay control. in the case of chemical control, a single active ingredient is, used that is highly characterized (investigated) chemically and toxicologically for any adverse human health and environmental effects. in biological control, an organism or a natural product is used that is not well characterized chemically but is produced through cultivation or fermentation processes without any selective concentration or purification of the organism or its primary or secondary metabolites. Some of these metabolites are broad-spectrum antibiotics (Bull et al. 1998; Janisiewicz et al. 1991) ‎Whether these materials or other compounds are mechanisms of action of biological controls is not clear, but known and unknown metabolites are probably present at low concentrations under Conditions that allow for their production. Stil ‎the idea of using a synthetic compound is not attractive to some people because not all aspects of the compound can be evaluated in respect to potential negative effects. Itis not the intent of the authors to resolve this issue but to ‎ ‎ 

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کننده های رشد گیاه يتارين. هر درمقى كه دم ده ترس اه تأخيرمي قدازة بلكه oo is ‏تبمارهلى 09-5 يم شدن دكمدهاى مبوه ليمو راب تأخيرمياتداند بنارا‎ ‏انها سا‎ laf alent ‏وسيدكى هی هه طلا ب‎ > ‏دید وم را بای موه بد ازدشت معصول‎ شده اندو به طور أزمايشى كشترل مشوتد ۲۵ هاتند أمينو اتوكسى وينيل كليسين هيدروكلراد يا ل تسیل مشاه را دنه اه دهد به همین تیه دمن با ها رکننده‌های ۵۵۲ ۳۸۵ ۵۲۲ ۵۵06۷۵ 666۲/۵6۵۵ 06 ۵606660607 مدیریت پوسیدگی پس از کشت با تنظیم ROCOLOTORO Plant growth is requlated by naturally occurring growth regulators that act as hormones. To change the plant's physiology, synthetically produced plant growth regulators arecommonly applied to certain agricultural crops. These compounds may act antagonistically to the naturally occurring substances or they are complementary, synthetic derivatives of these substances. By changing the plant's physiology, selected plant growth reg. ulators may also have an indirect effect on the fruit's susceptibility to postharvest decay caused by opportunistic (weak) pathogens. ‘Thus, any treatment that delays plant senescence not only delays ripening but may reduce susceptibility to pathogens that favor senescent tissues for infection. For example, postharvest treatment of lemons with gibberellic acid reduces ethylene production, delays ripening, and consequently delays the onset of sour rot caused by Geotrichumcitriaurantii (Coggins et al. 1965). For control of stem decays of citrus, 2,4-D treatments delay the senescence of lemon fruit buttons and thus delay the development of Alternaria stem end rot (De Wolfe et al. 1959). Diplodia and Phomopsis stem end rots of oranges (Loest et al. 1954) and Penicillium, Altemaria, and Colletatrichum decays of mandarins (Lodh et al. 1963) have 

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روش‌های درمان ‎poe‏ ی رن مد ‎ul‏ ‏ب ا ل عفن سل قرب ملد بر حجم زيل (به ‎ga lena ce Js lp‏ کم حجم ماد رای ‎Fv fase a CDA Eva‏ ل 0 رواب يسيار كمووجود هارد و در نتيجهمشكلى در و را | ‎eae‏ 0 ات زره نک رای )وی تاش موی ره مود شهار دج ول ی ری نآ در یه ی ‎Pee Lua ae eS,‏ ی 0 0 ند اي ی انا ره سیر رت مر رده 26/008/۲۵۵ 06 056/1116000261١ [7000۳40 برد درمان‌های پس از کشت TREATMENT METHODS Methods used to apply postharvest treatments include the less frequently used dips, Nooders, foamers, brushes, fumigators, dusters, paper wraps, and box liners, as well as the currently ‘more frequently used drenches, high-volume systems (e.g liquid or air-nozzle sprayers), and low-volume systems such as controlled droplet (CDA) applicators. High-volume applications Use from 417 10 834 Vmetric ton (100 to 200 galton) of frult, whereas low volume systems use 30 10 114 l/metric ton (8 to 30 galton) of fruit. itis critical that the labeled amount of fungicide is applied to the specified weight of fruit. Low- and ultra-low-volume applications are more economical and are ‘more environinentally sound, because there is very litle run off, resulting in nodisposal problems. Therefore, they are Increasingly being used. Treatments are applied either as an aqueous solution or more commonly in a waxoil emulsion. Based on thelr water-o Solubility, different waxes function differently Waxes used for postharvest treatments are derived from paraffinic olls {(petroleumbased oils), vegetable oils, carnauba waxes, or shellacs. Waxes are primarily used to prevent water loss of the ‘commodity during storage and transportation. In addition, they generally enhance fruit appearance. Most waxes, except the shellacs, allow gas exchange, so that respiration can occur with ‘minimal water loss. Ethylene also will freely pass through عبد تست ما ار ب نه ساكل ید و سین منت ی 

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میبخشد یا در معلولهای ی شود اث ابمااليل براى كنثول بوسيدكى روى ليموهابه طور قايل توجهى ‎st SB‏ ۳601060 ۵66۵0۲۵۵ ۳۳00+ عوامل موثر بر اثربخشی درمان ‘The efficacy of residual fungicides and biological controls, in preventing or minimizing postharvest decays depends ‘on several important factors. The most important factors, Include the activity of the treatment against any one decay organism, the spectrum of activity against the complex of postharvest decay organisms for each crop. and the preinfection (protectant) or postinfection (suppressant) activity of the treatment. The application ‘method may also determine the efficacy of the treatment: the most efficacious treatment may perform pooriy if itis, applied improperly. In addition, undesirable side effects ‘may occur. such as fruit staining or development of resistant pathogen populations. Generally, the addition of waxes improves fruit coverage. ‘The solubility of the chemical may be enhanced or decreased. Some methods of treatment allow for improved performance of the fungicide. As mentioned above, Iprodione mixed with wax-oil cmulsions significantly improved the ellicacy of the fungicide against a broader spectrum of decay pathogens.The efficacy of imazalil for decay control on lemons is significantly increased when ‏سیم‎ a ‏و ی سم و هی ی‎ ae 

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ی تنظیم سموم دفع آفات ادر سالهاى اخير در ايلات متحده تفيرات عمده نار رن نت یار ی سا کیت مد تا رل ول ده تک هد ایا ری شده ان هی ات ميا" یرت و كدكان یک رش سل مرک تا کرد یک سوم ‎abs‏ هنكام كاعش م بابد كه يامث انغاذ روشيهاى كنترل تلفيقى ياخطر يتلاب اتسن را كاهش دهف سميت بالقوه كمترى براى مها ‎fog asl cis‏ منايع محيطى را كافش دهدبيا مزان مصرف كمتر و مقاومت يه سموم را كاهش دهد. بنانميل. همانطور كه بل در اي مل تشان اد کشهای با خطر ‎SAS‏ ‎ens OB Sa Somaya Be‏ علاو بر سبيرواديتيل و ترك ‎a eS‏ كه يراق ‎Ja eed‏ از برداشت ثبت شده ند ات کش‌ها رب خر کلهش به دوع تشیممیکند ‎Sapp‏ آفات مولی و سموم زیستی, دم‌ها با داب سموم شیمیی با لکد محمر به رد سمیت بان ر خامیت گونه‌های هذف با ووغطیمی ‏۵ 010۷۵۵100۷ ۵00 0260106 06 ۵866۵075 6۵60۵۲06۲ جنبه‌های نظارتی درمان‌های شیمیایی و بیولوژیکی ‎REGULATION OF PESTICIDES Inecent years there have been major regulatory changes in the United States for pesticides used on all agricultural crops, Including postharvest pesticides on fruits and vegetables. in 11996, the federal Food Quality Protection Act (FOPA) amended the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) an. the federal insecticide, Fungicide, and. Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) to establish a new safety standard for citing tolerances of pesticides in raw and processed foods. These new safety Standards directed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to consider information concerning the exposure and cumulative effects of pesticides and other substances in food that have a commen made of action not only on the general population, but especially on infants and children. ‎Furthermore, FQPA encouraged the development and adoption of safer crop protection tools for U.S. agriculture with what began in 1994 as the "reduced-risk pesticide initiative.” A pesticide is considered to be reduced risk when it broadens the adoption of integratedpest management practices or reduces the exposure risk to humans, has a lower potential toxicity to nonmarket organisms, reduces the contamination of environmental resources, or promotes lower use rates and lower pesticide resistance potential. As indicated earlier in this chapter, reduced risk fungicides include the postharvest treatments azoxystrobin, fenhexamia, and fludioxoni ‎addition to cyprodonil and trifloxystrobin, which are registered ‎ 

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‎AA JL a pte‏ توسط اصلاحات كتكر ذر ۳۴82 هویب ‎ ‏ل سمل ومد شعد فد دک ۵ ‎ ‎ ‏هزین اس در بنامه بت ام مجدد ۸ پس از برسی خطر بر ‎verse,‏ معقول بر سلامثى انسان يا محيط زيسث رسب تاه مشود تسديم مالاسيت كين َم مجدد (880) را اتخاذ م ىكند. بررسى استقادههاى بالقوه اداه دارو ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏لت اه هم سل رت و وتیل ۱9۳۷ موی قل ار ‎ ‎ ‏]0۵ سموم خط كاهش ياقته كه عمده يوسيدكى بسبار قمال اث به اوج خود سيد ‎‘As mandated in 1988 by congressional ‘amendments to FIFRA, the EPA is also continuing its efforts in re-registration programs of Pesticides that were registered prior to Nov. 1, 11984, when standards for government approval were less stringent. Examples of postharvest fungicides that were not re-registered are benomyl, thiophanate-methyl, and trifolin. The registrants of these products found it too costly to reregister in the low profit postharvest market. In the re-registration program, EPA makes a re registration eligibility decision (RED) after a risk review for "unreasonable adverse effects to human health or the environment when used according to the label. The review defines potential continued uses and restrictions of a pesticide upon any reregistration. The postharvest fungicide iprodione was approved for reregistration; however, because postharvest Uses were identified as high risk, the manufacturer of the compound withdrew all its postharvest uses in 1996, and its preharvest fruit Uses in 1999, The lack of brown rat fungicide simulated extensive research for finding a replacement for iprodione, which culminated with the development of fludioxonil, a reduced- risk pesticide that is highly active against all major decay fungi ‎ 

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ی توسعه درمان‌های جدید at ‏رال است که در سال ۱۹۶۳ بای تسیل بت کال (خش‎ eg SS ‏قت ولي مسلرف كران براي آکینن از تن رای شروری یرت ات‎ كنثرل بيماري غيم شیمابی تحشق میکند. ‎ou‏ 6084 توسعة هده سد يل ممرف دكن لمحملا عانق پس از زيابيمى شوتد ودر عملكرد أنه بيار يمن و سازكار خف ضورتی كن بغرن عر تیان قرف که مایا دای دید هر دسترس ياشد يك تياز محلى خاص یا یت افطراری (بخش 1۸ فدرال) کی از بعرکه آى توليد موا شيميا جديد بای متفه در یک محصولآستد لت احماجات وه معلی براى سموم دقع افاث يا تحمل موجود وجود دارد. هر حالى كه ثبت نام اضطرارى ميزان تحمل ‎‘dail pant Srl ell gl py Sub Spe aja pu all‏ ۵6۷6۵۷۵۵۵0۵۲ ۵6 06 60 ‏,1ض‎ 6920091٠ 0۵۵۵0۵ In contrast to preharvest treatments, postharvest treatments ‘generally do not provide a large, high-profit market, and the agrochemical industry has been reluctant to spend time and funds ‘on registration of new chemicals for minor crops. Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR-4) is a federal program that was initiated in 1963 to facilitate full registration (Section 3) of pesticides for minor uses to ensure a supply of essential pest ‘management tools for minor crop growers and food processors. This program develops residue data so that the registrants would incur minimal expenses toward minor use labels of their products that are approved by the EPA. In the past, there were relatively few effective chemicals available for postharvest treatments. This is because the development of registered chemicals for postharvest use was aggravated by public position of stressing tisks over benefits; difficulties in discovering chemicals that effectively control decay pathogens, emergence of fungicide- resistant pathogen populations, and research emphasis on ‘nonchemical disease control strategies. With the enactment of FQPA, development of reduced risk pesticides for minor crop uses has become much more attractive for registrants. Furthermore, consumers are much more likely tO approve postharvest treatments that are rated as reduced risk and have been shown to be extremely safe and consistent in their performance. Thus, in the future we can expect a number of new treatments to become available. A special local need (Section 46 ‏جع جح مایا ان‎ eererpency registration (Section 18-Federal) te 

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سل دادن هب یرف شیپ عنوان ‎jot‏ تحمل ب۴ به ‎Jp‏ ‏کرد بش ‎I tas gli‏ از يرداشت به جز مواردى كه 8 به 0 ‏راي ا ريو‎ MIE aS ‏یس دا ول اس سل موی‎ تس مادک ‎pn Se‏ تشد ات در ول 1 ۱۷ کلف شنت کی سر مد هیا سک مار وی تسیل بای مد بت سوم قات شال ال رات ریس با فا رت در سرت تب از مین تحمل ‎lang fg ties‏ بای برسی له دهد سته‌های اه محدودیت‌های استفاده از سموم دفع آ O68 1017S OF PEOMOWES Residue tolerances must be established forall postharvest chemical treatments except those that the EPA has designated as exempt from tolerance or that the FOA has designated as Generally Regarded as Sale (GRAS). Exempt chemicals for postharvest use include chlorine solution, potassium sorbate, potassium bisulfile, and sulfur (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1999). Limits for application raics, however, also exist for exempt compounds. For example, there is a25-mgi (ppm) limit for generic hhypochlorous acid used in spray or dip tanks. Exceptions exist ifa label is registered for a specific hypochiorite-containing product for a given crop. Residue tolerances that have been established for nonexempt chemicals are included in tables 17.1 and 17.2. & tolerance is the maximum residue of a chemical that is allowed to remain fn the product. Pesticide registration includes evaluation of Combined or aggregate effects of pesticide exposure from food, drinking water, and other no occupational uses, as well as the cumulative effects of pesticides that are similar in their Chemistry. Pesticide manufacturers or registrants must submit, 2 wide array of scientific studies for review before EPA will set a tolerance. Data packages are designed to identify possible harmful effects that a pesticide could have on humans (toxicity data), the amount of chemical or breakdown products likely to remain in or on food, 

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مقاومت در برابر قارچ‌ها الست كه به طور زنذيكى يه اث م رسد ويه قارج اجازه م دهد در يربر ماده شيميايى كه قبل رشد أن ر مهار مىكند مقاومت كند. مقاومت ب رح کش بای تما زمقى أشكار م شود كه بوسيدكى ميوه ياد شود ‎es Sue‏ خاس بل کل ود رسی‌های ابر در مر ماوت به اج کش در ‎Kendall and Hofiomon (1998)', Hewill (1998)‏ .5 .1<( اج کش‌هایی كه خارابيك حالت هملكرد یت واحد هستند تنهار يك محل از سیر رج تأثييمىكذارنك در ننيجه8. احترام رشد همه مواد يا خطر كاهش يافته در در مفيل: مواد با مملكرد جند سايت نه تتها يكى يلكه بسيارى أز اس هر يك فرابند ‎Ee See‏ رخ دهد كه ممكن لست بقل “رافوايش دهد شخصى از ‎SU‏ ‏برحل رشد ابيدمىاكثر عوامل بيمارى زاى كباهىهابلويدى است. تقييرات جهشى بلافاصله یس ون وه ری که باشد. رشد أن در جمميث قارج سريع أسث. هر هيدو تسد دی" 0000 00000006101065 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS Fungicide resistance is a genetically inherit character that allows the fungus to withstand a chemical that previously inhibited its ‘growth. Fungicide resistance for postharvest treatments becomes evident when fruit decay develops that previously could be controlled by a specific treatment. Recent reviews on fungicide resistance are found in Hewill (1998) and Kendall and Hofloman (1998), Fungicides that have a single site mode of action affect only a single step in a physiological pathway of a fungus, resulting in the ‏.م‎ vention of growth. All of the reduced risk materials belong in this category: In contra: materials with a multi-site mode of action disrupt not just one but many processes that are vital for growth, Ian environmental pressure such as the use of a fungicide to ‘mana a disease is applied to a target pathogen population, the population may respond. Two the best-described mechanisms for responses of organisms to environmental pressures are selection {and mutation. fin a selection process the mode of action of a fungicide is only singlesite, there is greater potential to select Individuals from a heterogeneous population that vary in their sensitivity at this physiological site than when a fungicide acts on ‘multiple sites. In a mutation process, a genetic char may occur at the site of action of the fungicide that may increase the survivability of individual, Because the epidemic growth stage of, ‘most plant pathagens is asexual are haploid, mutational changes dase ‏ی ی یس ی ی ی مت یت‎ iy He he 

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احسلسيك منجر به زبين رفن ارقي کت م‌و ود نیت مج ابي ‎asta roe sh‏ ‎Sicko 7‏ ‎Be ba hepa wh de lie‏ تاي 2 صرن 1 رین تج ه تسیل آها بای اج مامت قرع کش‌ها یز در قارع كش هاى با مقلومت كم متوسط و بل طبه دی شده ند یک سل كلى با مقاومث به ريه كش إين أسث كه وفتى جمعيث قارجى. براي يك قارج كشى اريك كلاس خاص را ايجاد كند. جسهيت” جمعيتهلى مقاوم به بنوميل 10883 ‎Sti pp » Botrytis‏ ‎ag ya‏ کر هت لاه بر ‘The result of these processes is a shift in the pathogen population from one that was originally Sensitive to one that is resistant to the fungicide. A resistant fungal population has a reduced Sensitivity toward a fungicide as compared to the baseline sensitivity of e original population. This reduced sensitivity results in the loss of fungicide efficacy eventually leads to crop loss. The shift in pathogen population may be temporary permanent, depending on the fitness of the new population as compared to the oide (this is discussed in more detail below under Types of Resistance"). Resistance is much more common with fungicides that have a single-site mode o action ‘than with those that have multiple sites or action. Thus, according to their potential to develop resistance, fungicides have also been grouped into low, modera and high resistance risk fungicides (Hewitt 1998). A general principle with lungicid resistance is that once a fungal opulationdevelops resistance to a fungicide of a specific class, the population will be cross- resistant to other fungicides within the same class. For example, benomyl-resistant opuiations of Botrytis cinerea are cross- resistant to thiophanate methyl, thiabendazofe, and carendazim. In addition, a fungus can have ‏و ون ی ید مس وی لي‎ 

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‎po‏ جمعيث قوم مشود مار رکش به كور ادو بت ‎cote thal ales‏ وهای کل بای مزا وی اس ‎ergs‏ وگو ی مد در مت کی جهش‌های بای مره ی مشود هب ره ری باکر ‎aeons‏ 0 ‏مرت ‎A pt‏ ارد كد يك تقر يتف تدرجى بيلق کرت مدید مها نت )وتان سل تس گنوی ‎ale,‏ رد ان نع شوت بای ارچ کش ۵11108۳ مرد ان ریت رزیل شدي إن سايم مول لس ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎۰۲۵ 0 008 ‎Resistance in fungal populations has been described as either ‘qualitative or quantitative (Kendall and Hoflomon 1998), in ualitative resistance, a single mutation or a small number of "mutations in major genes results in the sudden shift from a Sensitive to a resistant population. Populations of pathogens with qualitative resistance generally remain parasitically fit land are stable populations in the absence of the fungicide. In practice, this results in the permanent presence of the resistant population. Subsequently, the efficacy of the fungicide is lost indefinitely Examples of this type of resistance are found with the benzimidazofes for control of, Penicillium decays of citrus (Eckert 1988) and brown rot decay fof stone fruits (Ogawa et al. 1988). ‎In quantitative resistance, numerous mutations result in ‘changes that contribute to a greater or lesser degree toward the development ofa resistant population that is comprised of individuals with different degrees of sensitivity In this type of resistance, there is ne sudden shift but rather a gradual change or selection for a resistant population with the Continued use of the fungicide. Because the multiple changes {generally make the resistant populations less fit as compared to sensitive populations, the population will revert lo Sensitivity overtime in the absence of the selection pressure (the fungicide). This type of resistance is typical for the DMI fungicide imazalil used on citrus forcontrol of Penicillium ‘aces ‏فا‎ end React TO091, 

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58 د تظر داشئن اين اصول اساسى. درمائهاى بس از برداشت بلي به ون اى سازكار شونذ كه رشد بالقوه جمعيتهاى مقلم به يك عامل بيمارى زا به حداقل برسد يا از أن اجتناب شود بايد اسثراتزىهانى تدوين وبه كار كرقته شود كه توسعه مقاومث را در بين جمعيت هدف به تأخير ‎il J Ji ee leet ol Sagi Saal oy hale ls fay‏ معمول ‎ly 2S lg Se yp el gn ole)‏ تشخيص زودرس خطوط مقاوم هر باب قارج کش بای ‎oS su a8 Jel‏ خاههایبسته بندی ‎ol pad‏ که از قارج كش هاى فيرمرتبط مانن تببنازول» ‎AUB pe OLN oy ile‏ ادر ميان جمعيتهاى كوتدهاى بنيسيليوم به جندين Sala soa Js ‎aly‏ عر لام وج عو وي ‎Seth‏ یی جذید هقرج در اه شود و تیان استفاه و بهطر مام را كرفتن در معرض مدوم قارج كش اقلب متجر ب اننخاب سريع جمعيتهاى مقلوم در بار قارع ‎ ‎ ‏شوند بيشثر استراييها بر جرخش يا مخلوط بين طبقات مخثلف قارج كش تأكيد هار اكر از مخلوطهاى قارج كش به هنوان يك استراتزى بواى مديريث مقاومث استفاده مىة زمان معرقى قارع كش الو يك ساي استطاده شود ابن بخلوط همجتين بايد حر هر يرنه و رخ مور بای هر قارع كش استفاده شدم هر مخلوط علا بر ‎cach acyl‏ يايد دارأ ثرو عملكرد مشايهى در يربر جمميشهاى هدف باشتد هر فير اين مورت ممكن ست اتاب جمميشهاى مقاوم نجام شود ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎ ‎PRECTICES GOD GTROTEG1IES TO PREYCOT 0 ‎806 ‏شیوه‌ها و استراتژی‌های جلوگیری از مقاومت ‎With these basic principles in mind, postharvest treatments ‘must be adapted so that the potential development of resistant populations of a pathogen is minimized or avoided. Strategies must be developed and deployed that delay the development of resistance within target populations. Initially, baseline sensitivity studies of the pathogen to anew chemical should be established before the chemical is commonly used, {and a monitoring program should be started for early detection of fungicide-resistant lines. For instance, monitoring In lemon packinghouses, where unrelated fungicides such as thiabendazofe, 2-aminobutane, imazalil, and biphenyl are Used, has made it possible to detect resistance within populations of Penicilium species to several of these compounds (Ogawa et al. 1983). ‎To help delay the development of resistant lines, a new chemical should be gradually introduced into the current chemical program, and it should not be used exclusively Continuous exposure of any pathogen to a fungicide often results in the rapid selection of fungicide-resistant populations. Fungicides with single-site mode of action should ‘ot be used alone on a continuous basis. Most strategies emphasize rotations or mixtures between different classes of fungicides. IF fungicide mixtures are emplayed as a strategy for resistance management, they must be Used from the Introduction of the single-site made of action fungicide. The mixture should also be used in each application and at ‎ 

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مدیریت قارج کش ی أزتظر تاريشى. اريخشى و هزيتة تين كنتددى عوامل استقاده از قارج كش يودات اب توجه يه نظارت صحيح. يك فاكثور تعيين كننده مهم ني اي بتقسيل مقاومت جمعيث باتوزن درا يك محصول ممين بلشد. حفظ عارلى بالاى يك كارج كش ند هيه تفع كر ‎thay glee‏ مقلومت نان تجدده يك ضور اتاد الوه مظيم يرا گنه است. ينواين» فستور مهلها و توصيههابى در اخخيار رن را می ید که اطلامات علاوه بر ان تویدکندگان منعهد بهمدیریت ماوت از طیق نها ین شرکنی مد كميك اب مامت در برچ کش هستند. کی از مهمترین جنبه‌های نظارت ‎Poy ASN gl yale ath oh)‏ ورد گشند‌های ری ای که در حالحاشرثبت شد اند طيف ات نها نحوه عملكرد و كلاس و ماندكارى أنها يس از استفده هر محيطهاى متفير مورد يار استه ذر حال حاضر. دسنهرالعمل هلى قارج كش كه خطر مقاومت را كاهش مدهتد. توصيه مىكنفدة ایک ات فرع ste قرع کشهای علکرد یک سایت * چرخش ی کلاسهایمختلف قارج كثرها * محدوديث تعداد كل برنامدهاى كارنردى هر کاس قار کش به چا با کت در هر فصل 60006101000 ۳۵۵0۵ Historically, efficacy and cost have been determining factors for fungicide usage, but with proper stewardship in mind a significant ‘determining factor should also be a pathogen population's resistance potential to a given product. Maintaining a fungicide's, high efficacy is inthe interest not only ofits users but also ofits ‘manufacturer. Resistance represents potentially huge economic loss to the manufacturer. Thus, guidelines and recommendations are made available to users that provide strategic information for Fesistance management. In addition, manufacturers are committed to resistance management through intercompany programs such as the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC). One of the most Important aspects of fungicide stewardship for a grower or user Is to be aware not only of the efficacy of a fungicide but of al ofits properties, including the consequences of its overuse, Additionally, up-to-date information is needed on the fungicides ‘currently registered, their spectrum of activity, thelr made of action and class, and their persistence after application under variable environments. Currently, fungicide guidelines that reduce the risk of resistance from developing in a target population recommend: + Initiation ofa fungicide disease management program that starts inthe field with a multi-site mode of action fungicide, continuing before and after harvest with single-site mode of action | ‏مب‎ 

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‎Jr‏ به ديل يوسيدكى ‎led)‏ کازی یک ‎Gass FoF pea el pegs gt od hea‏ ‎Joe Sle‏ نیع سل تج ‎ ‏رفث های مهمی در ری پس از ‎ ‎ ‎ ‏سیدگی ری مت قیقل قرل لد > حلیه ود کنیدشته نت رن ‎ ‏کنند ال قبلمی کند در حال حاشر. ای شیمای با فاد اجک ‏موثرترين وسيلهبراى كنترل يوسيدكى بس از برداشت محصول لسث. يا لين حال نا ‏بخشى أزيك سيستم يكيارجه هستند كه شامل روشهاى مديريثى در زميته. روشهاى ‏تكهدارى و قخيره سارى بس از برداشت محصول . و همجنين درماهاى بهداشتى محمول و فاد هوامل كتترل ببولوزيكى اه ‎ ‎00000 ‎Prevention of postharvest losses due to decay has been a challenge since the beginning of agriculture. Currently, the use of modem technology for selecting resistant cultivars or modifying postharvest environments has extended storage and shelf life of harvested commodities. Using reduced temperatures and controlled atmospheres to slow metabolic processes of the host, eliminating potential inoculum sources of the pathogen, and improving equipment or handling procedures to reduce potential risks of commodity injury have been critical advances in postharvest technology for maintaining high quality and reducing losses from decay. Losses of commodities, however, stil occur during transportation and marketing. The agricultural economy has changed from a local to a global market, with narrow profit margins due to high standards of quality and long-distance transportation and storage costs that make any loss from decay unacceptable to the industry. Thus, integrated approaches that utlize physical and chemical methods have been developed. ‎Chemical management tools have evolved from simple Inorganic molecules to complex organic compounds. While older compounds have a protective action and target multiple sites within the pathogen, the newer materials often have protective and Suppressive action, and they target a single site within a biochemical pathway of the pathogen. In adaition, the latest Introductions of postharvest control treatments have characteristics that make them more acceptable to the consumer because of their extremely low toxicity to certain human populations. Currently, 

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له رن ال سای هدر ماد شا مرح بو ده ای ات ی شود وا كر ی تاکز سک مج دای سنج ری هه تیم ‎eo‏ ‎con a Seed ae‏ معصول < و كيد ااي براي شيمابى و كغول هاى بالويكى أيه درشثاقى عرد توليد كتدكان .بسته بتدى هايا جالش هاى جديدى رورو هستد أكثر محصولات جديد هر مقايسه يا تركييات قديمى سميث طيف كسترفه أ در براير ول بای قارجى كه ممكن اسث در يك محصول خا ايجاد شود تارند عا 1 ‏ی یرد را‎ ge Furthermore, with the advent of computer modeling in the discovery and optimization of fungicides, designer chemicals wil increasingly be utilized. ‘Thus, if target sites are chemically well- characterized, new compounds can be designed or the efficacy of existing compounds can be optimized. With these new perspectives in fungicide development, the increased interest of chemical companies in postharvest treatments, and the regulatory emphasis on human and environmental safety, control of postharvest pathogens with chemicals and biological controls has a bright future. Growers and packers, however, face new challenges. Most of the new products do not have as much broad-spectrum toxicity against the sungal pathogens that may occur on a specific crop as Compared to the older compounds. Furthermore, a higher risk for development of resistance in target populations generally exists with new fungicides because most of these compounds have only single- site modes of action. New approaches, including the concepts of fungicide stewardship.” will be needed in developing and maintaining the fungicide ‘component in integrated disease management programs in production agriculture. Stewardship, ‘must also be regarded as interdisciplinary. With the discovery of new highly active compounds, safety regulations should also restrict the use of specific chemical classes with similar modes of action to either human medicine or agriculture purposes of disease control. This would ensure that 

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امور لجس عله 0 سا ا محصولات داراى برجسب را كه اجازه بازاريالى جهانى محصولات را مى دهد ان لبت محصولات يخشى از يبهستكى رويكردهاى يكيارجه در ار كالاهلى كشاورزي انث كه بواى تظارت بر محصولات و استفاد يمن از أنها در توزيع جهانى ‎ya‏ تراتزى على استفاه يهينه يس لز برفاكت قارج كش ها شام کش ‎lea la lye in os Jenga a‏ يا زیم غوامل بيعارى زرا اه دهند 5 معفم عم اجن ورعب فسط يها عطاقت ‎Por‏ سمه جد ماجع مي !! ممع طبن ذا اعدو اسح ‎Ome‏ he Ocard ‏صو‎ ‎JE Adaskaveg, H Forster Foathorvest pathology, 207.37, Abstract New developments in postharvest fungicide registrations of fresh fruit and vegetable crops and use strategies in the United States are discussed for preventing decay and crop losses while minimizing the potential of selection of resistant pathogen populations. Postharvest fungicides used on agricultural commodities are among the most rigorously tested and regulated chemicals in the world and their risk assessment analysis and residue limits are extensively reviewed by multiple regulatory agencies. Novel products and pre-mixtures increase the spectrum of fungal decays managed and the number of crops labeled allowing global ‘marketing of crops. These product registrations are part of a continuum of integrated approaches of handling agricultural ‘commodities designed for stewardship of products and their ‘safe usage in the worldwide distribution of fresh produce. Optimized postharvest usage strategies of fungicides include integration with other fungicides (ie., pre-mixtures) and ‘sanitation treatments to optimize performance while allowing identification of methods that reduce the selection of resistant sub-populations of pathogens