Quality Control of Herbal Drugs
اسلاید 1: www.tabaye.ir
اسلاید 2: Quality Control of Herbal Drugs
اسلاید 3: Quality control for efficacy and safety of herbal products is of paramount importance. Quality can be defined as the status of a drug that is determined by identity, purity, content, and other chemical, physical, or biological properties, or by the manufacturing processes. Quality control is a term that refers to processes involved in maintaining the quality and validity of a manufactured product.In general, all medicines, whether they are of synthetic or of plant origin, should fulfill the basic requirements of being efficacious and safe, and this can be achieved by suitable clinical trials.
اسلاید 4: The term “herbal drugs” denotes plants or plant parts that have been converted into phytopharmaceuticals by means of simple processes involving harvesting, drying, and storage. A practical addition to the definition is also to include other crude products derived from plants, which no longer show any organic structure, such as essential oils, fatty oils, resins, and gums. Derived or isolated compounds in the processed state such as extracts or even isolated purified compounds (e.g. strychnine from Strychnos nux-vomica) or mixtures of compounds (e.g. abrin from Abrus precatorius) are, as a rule, not included in the definition.
اسلاید 5: In general, quality control is based on three important pharmacopoeial definitions:Identity: Is the herb the one it should be?Purity: Are there contaminants, e.g., in the form of other herbs which should not be there?Content or assay: Is the content of active constituents within the defined limits?
اسلاید 6: It is obvious that the content is the most difficult one to assess, since in most herbal drugs the active constituents are unknown. Sometimes markers can be used which are, by definition, chemically defined constituents that are of interest for control purposes, independent of whether they have any therapeutic activity or not.To prove identity and purity, criteria such as type of preparation, physical constants, adulteration, contaminants, moisture, ash content and solvent residues have to be checked. The correct identity of the crude herbal material, or the botanical quality, is of prime importance in establishing the quality control of herbal drugs.
اسلاید 7: Identity can be achieved by macro- and microscopical examinations. Voucher specimens are reliable reference sources. Outbreaks of diseases among plants may result in changes to the physical appearance of the plant and lead to incorrect identification. At times an incorrect botanical quality with respect to the labeling can be a problem. For example, in the 1990s, a South American product labeled as “Paraguay Tea” was associated with an outbreak of anticholinergic poisoning in New York. Subsequent chemical analysis revealed the presence of a class of constituents that was different from the metabolites normally found in the plant from which Paraguay tea is made.
اسلاید 8: Purity is closely linked with the safe use of drugs and deals with factors such ash values, contaminants (e.g. foreign matter in the form of other herbs), and heavy metals. However, due to the application of improved analytical methods, modern purity evaluation also includes microbial contamination, aflatoxins, radioactivity, and pesticide residues. Analytical methods such as photometric analysis, thin layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and gas chromatography (GC) can be employed in order to establish the constant composition of herbal preparations.
اسلاید 9: Content or assay is the most difficult area of quality control to perform, since in most herbal drugs the active constituents are not known. Sometimes markers can be used. In all other cases, where no active constituent or marker can be defined for the herbal drug, the percentage extractable matter with a solvent may be used as a form of assay, an approach often seen in pharmacopeias. The choice of the extracting solvent depends on the nature of the compounds involved, and might be deduced from the traditional uses. For example, when a herbal drug is used to make a tea, the hot water extractable matter, expressed as milligrams per gram of air-dried material, may serve this purpose.
اسلاید 10: A special form of assay is the determination of essential oils by steam distillation. When the active constituents (e.g. sennosides in Senna) or markers (e.g. alkylamides in Echinacea) are known, a vast array of modern chemical analytical methods such as ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy (UV/VIS), TLC, HPLC, GC, mass spectrometry (MS), or a combination of GC and MS (GC/MS), can be employed.
اسلاید 11: Several problems not applicable to synthetic drugs influence the quality of herbal drugs:Herbal drugs are usually mixtures of many constituents.The active principle(s) is (are), in most cases unknown.Selective analytical methods or reference compounds may not be available commercially.Plant materials are chemically and naturally variable.The source and quality of the raw material are variable.The methods of harvesting, drying, storage, transportation, and processing (for example, mode of extraction and polarity of the extracting solvent, instability of constituents, etc.) have an effect.
اسلاید 12: Strict guidelines have to be followed for the successful production of a quality herbal drug. Among them are proper botanical identification, phytochemical screening, and standardization.
اسلاید 13: Standardization involves adjusting the herbal drug preparation to a defined content of a constituent or a group of substances with known therapeutic activity by adding excipients or by mixing herbal drugs or herbal drug preparations. Botanical extracts made directly from crude plant material show substantial variation in composition, quality, and therapeutic effects. Standardized extracts are high-quality extracts containing consistent levels of specified compounds, and they are subjected to rigorous quality controls during all phases of the growing, harvesting, and manufacturing processes.
اسلاید 14: No regulatory definition exists for standardization of dietary supplements. As a result, the term “standardization” may mean many different things. Some manufacturers use the term standardization incorrectly to refer to uniform manufacturing practices; following a recipe is not sufficient for a product to be called standardized. Therefore, the presence of the word “standardized” on a supplement label does not necessarily indicate product quality. When the active principles are unknown, marker substance(s) should be established for analytical purposes and standardization.Marker substances are chemically defined constituents of a herbal drug that are important for the quality of the finished product. Ideally, the chemical markers chosen would also be the compounds that are responsible for the botanical’s effects in the body.
اسلاید 15: There are two types of standardization In the first category, “true” standardization, a definite phytochemical or group of constituents is known to have activity. Ginkgo with its 26% ginkgo flavones and 6% terpenes is a classic example. These products are highly concentrated and no longer represent the whole herb, and are now considered as phytopharmaceuticals. In many cases they are vastly more effective than the whole herb. The other type of standardization is based on manufacturers guaranteeing the presence of a certain percentage of marker compounds; these are not indicators of therapeutic activity or quality of the herb.
اسلاید 16: Parameters for Quality Control of Herbal Drugs
اسلاید 17: 1. Macroscopic Examination
اسلاید 18: Organoleptic evaluationOrganoleptic evaluation of drugs refers to the evaluation of a drug by colour, odour, size, shape, taste and special features including touch, texture etc. Since the majority of information on the identity, purity and quality of the material can be drawn from these observations, they are of primary importance before any further testing can be carried out.For this purpose authentic specimen of the material under study and samples of pharmacopoeial quality should be available to serve as a reference.This evaluation procedure provides the simplest and quickest means to establish the identity and purity and thereby ensure quality of a particular sample.
اسلاید 19: If it is found to be devoid of or significantly different from the specified sensory characters like colour, consistency, odour, etc., it is considered as not fulfilling the requirements.However judgment based on the sensory characteristics like odour, taste etc., may vary from person to person and time to time based on individuals nature. So the description of this features are very difficult so that often the characteristic like odour and taste can only described as characteristic and reference made to the analysts memory.No preliminary treatment is necessary for evaluating the sample in this manner excepting the softening and stretching of the wrinkled and contracted leaves and flowers etc.
اسلاید 20: 2. Microscopic Evaluation
اسلاید 21: Quality control of herbal drugs has traditionally been based on appearance and today microscopic evaluation is indispensable in the initial identification of herbs, as well as in identifying small fragments of crude or powdered herbs, and detection of foreign matter and adulterants. A primary visual evaluation, which seldom needs more than a simple magnifying lens, can be used to ensure that the plant is of the required species, and that the right part of the plant is being used. At other times, microscopic analysis is needed to determine the correct species and/or that the correct part of the species is present. For instance, pollen morphology may be used in the case of flowers to identify the species, and the presence of certain microscopic structures such as leaf stomata can be used to identify the plant part used. Although this may seem obvious, it is of prime importance, especially when different parts of the same plant are to be used for different treatments. Stinging nettle (Urtica urens) is a classic example where the aerial parts are used to treat rheumatism, while the roots are applied for benign prostate hyperplasia.
اسلاید 22: 3. Determination of Foreign Matter
اسلاید 23: Herbal drugs should be made from the stated part of the plant and be devoid of other parts of the same plant or other plants. They should be entirely free from moulds or insects, including excreta and visible contaminant such as sand and stones, poisonous and harmful foreign matter and chemical residues. Animal matter such as insects and “invisible” microbial contaminants, which can produce toxins, are also among the potential contaminants of herbal medicines. Macroscopic examination can easily be employed to determine the presence of foreign matter, although microscopy is indispensable in certain special cases (for example, starch deliberately added to “dilute” the plant material). Furthermore, when foreign matter consists, for example, of a chemical residue, TLC is often needed to detect the contaminants.
اسلاید 24: 4. Determination of Ash
اسلاید 25: To determine ash content the plant material is burnt and the residual ash is measured as total and acid-insoluble ash. Total ash is the measure of the total amount of material left after burning and includes ash derived from the part of the plant itself and acid-insoluble ash. The latter is the residue obtained after boiling the total ash with dilute hydrochloric acid, and burning the remaining insoluble matter. The second procedure measures the amount of silica present, especially in the form of sand and siliceous earth.
اسلاید 26: 5. Determination of Heavy Metals
اسلاید 27: Contamination by toxic metals can either be accidental or intentional. Contamination by heavy metals such as mercury, lead, copper, cadmium, and arsenic in herbal remedies can be attributed to many causes, including environmental pollution, and can pose clinically relevant dangers for the health of the user and should therefore be limited.A simple, straightforward determination of heavy metals can be found in many pharmacopeias and is based on color reactions with special reagents such as thioacetamide or diethyldithiocarbamate, and the amount present is estimated by comparison with a standard. Instrumental analyses have to be employed when the metals are present in trace quantities, in admixture, or when the analyses have to be quantitative. The main methods commonly used are atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma (ICP) and neutron activation analysis (NAA).
اسلاید 28: 6. Determination of Microbial Contaminants and Aflatoxins
اسلاید 29: Medicinal plants may be associated with a broad variety of microbial contaminants, represented by bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Inevitably, this microbiological background depends on several environmental factors and exerts an important impact on the overall quality of herbal products and preparations.Herbal drugs normally carry a number of bacteria and molds, often originating in the soil. Poor methods of harvesting, cleaning, drying, handling, and storage may also cause additional contamination, as may be the case with Escherichia coli or Salmonella spp. While a large range of bacteria and fungi are from naturally occurring microflora, aerobic spore-forming bacteria frequently predominate.
اسلاید 30: Laboratory procedures investigating microbial contaminations are laid down in the well-known pharmacopeias, as well as in the WHO guidelines. In general, a complete procedure consists of determining the total aerobic microbial count, the total fungal count, and the total Enterobacteriaceae count, together with tests for the presence of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella spp. The European Pharmacopoeia also specifies that E. coli and Salmonella spp. should be absent from herbal preparations. However it is not always these two pathogenic bacteria that cause clinical problems. For example, a fatal case of listeriosis was caused by contamination of alfalfa tablets with the Gram positive bacillus Listeria monocytogenes.
اسلاید 31: Materials of vegetable origin tend to show much higher levels of microbial contamination than synthetic products and the requirements for microbial contamination in the European Pharmacopoeia allow higher levels of microbial contamination in herbal remedies than in synthetic pharmaceuticals. The allowed contamination level may also depend on the method of processing of the drug. For example, higher contamination levels are permitted if the final herbal preparation involves boiling with water.
اسلاید 32: The presence of fungi should be carefully investigated and/or monitored, since some common species produce toxins, especially aflatoxins. Aflatoxins in herbal drugs can be dangerous to health even if they are absorbed in minute amounts. Aflatoxin-producing fungi sometimes build up during storage. Procedures for the determination of aflatoxin contamination in herbal drugs are published by the WHO. After a thorough clean-up procedure, TLC is used for confirmation.Certain plant constituents are susceptible to chemical transformation by contaminating microorganisms.
اسلاید 33: 7. Determination of Pesticide Residues
اسلاید 34: Even though there are no serious reports of toxicity due to the presence of pesticides and fumigants, it is important that herbs and herbal products are free of these chemicals or at least are controlled for the absence of unsafe levels. Herbal drugs are liable to contain pesticide residues, which accumulate from agricultural practices, such as spraying, treatment of soils during cultivation, and administering of fumigants during storage. However, it may be desirable to test herbal drugs for broad groups in general, rather than for individual pesticides. Many pesticides contain chlorine in the molecule, which, for example, can be measured by analysis of total organic chlorine. In an analogous way, insecticides containing phosphate can be detected by measuring total organic phosphorus. Samples of herbal material are extracted by a standard procedure, impurities are removed by partition and/or adsorption, and individual pesticides are measured by GC, MS, or GC/MS. Some simple procedures have been published by the WHO and the European Pharmacopoeia has laid down general limits for pesticide residues in medicine.
اسلاید 35: 8. Determination of Radioactive Contamination
اسلاید 36: There are many sources of ionization radiation, including radionuclides, occurring in the environment. Hence a certain degree of exposure is inevitable. Dangerous contamination, however, may be the consequence of a nuclear accident. The WHO, in close cooperation with several other international organizations, has developed guidelines in the event of a widespread contamination by radionuclides resulting from major nuclear accidents. These publications emphasize that the health risk, in general, due to radioactive contamination from naturally occurring radio nuclides is not a real concern, but those arising from major nuclear accidents such as the nuclear accident in Chernobyl, may be serious and depend on the specific radionuclide, the level of contamination, and the quantity of the contaminant consumed. Taking into account the quantity of herbal medicine normally consumed by an individual, they are unlikely to be a health risk. Therefore, at present, no limits are proposed for radioactive contamination.
اسلاید 37: 9. Analytical Methods
اسلاید 38: The quantitative determination of constituents has been made easy by recent developments in analytical instrumentation. Recent advances in the isolation, purification, and structure elucidation of naturally occurring metabolites have made it possible to establish appropriate strategies for the determination and analysis of quality and the process of standardization of herbal preparations. Classification of plants and organisms by their chemical constituents is referred to as chemotaxonomy. TLC, HPLC, GC, quantitative TLC (QTLC), and high-performance TLC (HPTLC) can determine the homogeneity of a plant extract. Over-pressured layer chromatography (OPLC), infrared and UV-VIS spectrometry, MS, GC, liquid chromatography (LC) used alone, or in combinations such as GC/MS, LC/MS, and MS/MS, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), are powerful tools, often used for standardization and to control the quality of both the raw material and the finished product. The results from these sophisticated techniques provide a chemical fingerprint as to the nature of chemicals or impurities present in the plant or extract.
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