مکتب های ادبی ( Realism )

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Realism 

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Realism * The realist movement in literature developed * France ٠ England + Russia ٠ United States * Realist literature is best represented by the novel * Realist writers sought to narrate their novels from an objective, unbiased perspective that simply and clearly represented the factual elements of the story * Realist writers often addressed themes of socioeconomic conflict by contrasting the living conditions of the poor with” those of the upper classes in urban as well as rural ‏مس‎ ‎societies. 4 

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* Naturalism, an offshoot of Realism, was a literary movement that placed even greater emphasis on the accurate representation of details from contemporary life * In the United States, regionalism and local color fiction in particular were American offshoots of Realism * Realismalso exerted a profound influence on drama and theatrical productions, altering practices of set design, costuming, acting style, and dialogue. 

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REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS Honore’ de Balzac (1799-1850) + He is recognized as the originator of French Realism in literature and one of the greatest novelists of the nineteenth century + He spent much of his adult life in Paris, where he frequented many of the notable literary salons of the day + Balzac supported himself through writing + His life’s work comprises a series of some ninety novels and novellas collectively entitled La Come ‘die humaine (The Human Comedy) + Balzac died following a long illness on August 18, 1850 

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Charles Dickens (1812-1870) * Charles Dickens is known as an early master of the English realist novel and one of the most celebrated and most enduring novelists of all time * He lived and worked in London as a law clerk, court reporter, and newspaper journalist * His first novel is Pickwick Papers (1836) * Dickens died of a paralytic stroke in Kent, England, on June 9, 1870. 

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Dickens's major novels include Oliver Twist (1838) Nicholas Nickleby (1839) The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of ‘Eighty (1841) The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (1844) Dealings with the Firm of Dombey and Son, Wholesale, Retail, and for Exportation (1848) >» David Copperfield (1850), Bleak House (1853) » Hard Times: For These Times (1854) > Little Dorrit (1857) » ATale of Two Cities (1859) » Great Expectations (1861) » and Our Mutual Friend (1865) » A Christmas Carol (1843) 

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Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) + Fyodor Dostoevsky is known as a major author of Russian realist fiction and one of the greatest novelists of all time * He received a degree in military engineering in 1843 but resigned his post in order to pursue a career in writing. * His first published work was a translation from French into Russian of Balzac’s novel Euge ‘nie Grandet + Dostoevsky’s original novella Bednyye lyudi (Poor Folk), published in 1846, + Dostoevsky’s fiction had a profound influence on the literature, philosophy, psychology, and religious thought of the twentieth century ٠ His novels are celebrated as masterworks of psychological Realism in their portrayal of individuals haunted by their own dark impulses. ae A * Dostoevsky died in St. Petersburg, Russia, on January 28, 

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Dostoevsky’s greatest works include » Prestupleniye | nakazaniye (1866) translated as Crime and Punishment. » Idiot (1868), Besy (1872) translated as The Possessed » Dnevnik pisatelya (1873-1877), translated as The Diary of a Writer » and Brat’ya Karamazovy (1880), translated as The Brothers Karamazov » as well as the novella Zapiski iz podpolya (1864), translated as Notes from the Underground 

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George Eliot (1819-1880) * George Eliot is the pen name of Mary Ann Evans, one of the most outstanding novelists of English Realism + After the death of her mother, Eliot took on the role of her father’s caretaker. After her father died, she moved to London to support herself as a freelance writer and then as editor of the Westminster Review Eliot’s major works include 24 Adam Bede (1859) The Mill on the Floss (1860) Silas Marner (1861) Middlemarch (1871-1872) Daniel Deronda (1876) VVVV + Eliot died suddenly of heart failure in London, England, on. December 22, 1880. 

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Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) ٠ Gustave Flaubert is known as the consummate writer of French Realism * His major works include >» Madame Bovary (1857) >» Salammbo (1863) » L'Education sentimentale (1869) > Trois Contes (1877) + Flaubert died from a stroke in Croisset on May 8, 1880. 

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William Dean Howells (1837- 1920 5 ‏مد‎ Dean Howells is considered the foremost American realist writer of the nineteenth century + In 1860 he wrote a biography of then-presidential candidate Abraham Lincoln After Lincoln was elected, Howells was given a consulship in Venice, Italy, which he held from 1861 to 1865 + Upon returning to the UnitedStates, he worked as assistant editor of the Atlantic Monthly magazine from 1866 until 1871, then as chief editor until 1881 Howells’s major works include » A Modern Instance (1882) > The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885) > Annie Kilburn (1888) » A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890) + Howells died in New York City, New York, on May 11, 1920. 

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Henry James (1843-1916) He had an affinity for literature and languages and traveled around Europe as a young man He was soon contributing to periodicals such as the Nation, the Atlantic Monthly, and the New York Tribune James never married and his letters have revealed that he was discretely homosexual James's most prominent works include > The Turn of the Screw » Daisy Miller (1878) > Portrait of a Lady (1881) » Wings of the Dove (1902) » The Ambassadors (1903) + He died less than a year later, on February 28, 1916, in London, England, from complications from a stroke that occurred in : December 

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Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893) + He is known as a major practitioner of Naturalism and Realism and an exceptionally fine short story writer + When the Franco-German war broke out in 1870, he left law school to serve in the military effort + Maupassant developed an important literary apprenticeship under Gustave Flaubert, who also served as a father figure. + With the publication of his story ‘Ball of Fat’’ (1880), Maupassant gained immediate literary success ٠ Asa result of contracting syphilis, Maupassant suffered increasing mental and psychological instability. + He died in a nursing home on July 6, 1893, at the age of forty-two. 

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Maupassant’s major volumes of short stories include » La maison Tellier (1881) translated as The Tellier House >» Mademoiselle Fifi (1883) * Contes de la be’casse (1883), translated as Tales of the Goose >» Clair de lune (1884) » Les soeurs Rondoli (1884), translated as The Rondoli Sisters >» Yvette (1884) ‎Toine (1886)‏ خ ‎> Le Horla (1887) ‎» Le rosier de Madame Husson (1888), translated as The Rose- Bush of Madame Husson ‎* L'Inutile beaute’ (1890), translated as The Useless Beauty ‎His most important novels include ‎» Une vie (1883), translated as A Woman's Life » Bel-Ami (1885), translated as Good Friend » Pierre et Jean (1888), translated as Pierre and Jean ‎ 

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Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) + Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy is known as a major Russian realist writer and one of the most eminent novelists of all time + Tolstoy’s first publication, Detstvo (1852; Childhood), is a nostalgic work of fiction based on the early years of his life. + In the early 1850s, Tolstoy joined the military and fought in the Crimean War (1853- 1856) + nthe late 1870s, he experienced a religious conversion and developed ideas of Christian faith that were at odds with the Russian Orthodox church, from which he was excommunicated in 1901 + He died of pneumonia in the province of Ryazan on November 20, 1910. 

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Tolstoy’s greatest novels are » Voini i mir (1869; War and Peace) » Anna Karenina (1877) » His Smert Ivana llicha (1886; The Death of Ivan Ilyich) is considered one of the greatest examples of the novella, or short novel form. 

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E ‘mile Zola (1840-1902) E’mile Zola, one of the greatest novelists of all time, was the founder of Naturalism in literature, which was a further development of Realism. After his first novel was published in 1865, Zola quit his job as a clerk at a publishing company in order to support himself as a writer. Inspired by Balzac’s TheHuman Comedy, Zola set out to write what became a twentynovel series entitled Les Rougon-Macquart (The Rougon-Macquarts) In 1880 Zola oversaw the publication of a collection of short stories by six naturalist authors titled Les Soire’es de Me ‘dan (Evenings at Me ‘dan), after the location of his home at Me ‘dan, outside of Paris, where his circle of naturalists met. In an article titled ‘‘J'’Accuse” (‘I Accuse’’), Zola defended the rights of a Jewish military officer, Alfred Dreyfus, who had been falsely accused of espionage Zola died of accidental asphyxiation in Paris, France, on September 

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> Germinal » A Hazard of New Fortunes » The Human Comedy » Madame Bovary » Middlemarch REPRESENTATIVE WORKS > Anna Karenina > “Ball of Fat’ > Crime and Punishment » Daisy Miller » David Copperfield 

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THEMES Class Conflict realist writers, in their efforts to depict characters from all levels of society, highlighted differences between the rich and the poor > In David Copperfield, by Dickens, the protagonist experiences the suffering of impoverished children forced to work in urban factories > In Germinal, Zola focuses on the conflict between working- class miners and wealthy mine owners, which erupts in a labor strike >» In A Hazard of New Fortunes, Howell portrays characters from various places on the spectrum of American political thought who come into conflict over their efforts to start a 0۷ 7 > In War and Peace, Tolstoy portrays conflicts between the 

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The City + Many realist novelists sought to depict various aspects of life in the rapidly industrializing nineteenth-century city > Balzac, in the novels of The Human Comedy, is often noted for his extensive and accurate portrayal of society, culture, and commerce in Paris during the mid-nineteenth century ‎Howells, in A Hazard of New Fortunes, has been praised for his‏ خ ‎detailed depiction of the diverse flow of human life in New York‏ ‎City‏ ‎» Dickens set much of his fiction in London, describing specific ‎streets, buildings and neighborhoods in his novels ‎> Russian realist writers Tolstoy and Dostoevsky described various elements of society in Moscow and St. Petersburg in their novels 

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Philosophy and Morality + Realist novelists often address the related themes of religion, philosophy, and morality in their works of fiction. + While realist novels are known for their accurate descriptions of various physical details, many of them are also highly theoretical in their presentation of various religious and philosophical debates > Tolstoy, for example, included characters in his novels that grapple with complex questions regarding Christian faith and the meaning of life » Dostoevsky also created fictional characters who carry on extended philosophical discussions and debates about Christian morality > In Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov, Dostoevsky was particularly concerned with the moral, ethical, and religious ~~ issues raised by characters who commit crimes such as murder’ 

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Marriage and the Family * Realist novelists often focused on the dynamics of marriage and family life in different sectors of society + Extramarital affairs are the subject of such majorworks of realist fiction + Flaubert’sMadame Bovary and Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina, both novels about married middle-class women whose affairs lead to social catastrophe and suicide. * Realist fiction often focuses on several sets of families or couples within a single novel for example Anna Karenina and War and Peace and Eliot’s Middlemarch + In their portrayals of marriages and families, realists explored various social and psychological factors contributing to the quality of domestic life in the nineteenth century. yi 

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» . Anna Karenina and War and Peace focus on three families. » Eliot’s Middlemarch also focuses on the family and marital dynamics within several different households. » Dostoevsky’s The Brothers Karamazov focuses on four brothers (including one illegitimate half-brother) and their father, whom one of them has murdered. » Dickens often wrote about orphans who were without family but who eventually find people who function as surrogate families 

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STYLE Narrative Voice The term narrative voice refers to the way in which a story is told realist writers sought to narrate their fictional stories in an omniscient, objective voice, from the perspective of a storyteller who is not a character in the story but rather an invisible presence who remains outside the realm of the story The French realists in particular—Balzac, Flaubert, Zola, and Maupassant—sought to describe the subject matter of their fiction in clear, detailed, accurate terms, devoid of judgment or moralizing on the part of the narrator. 

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Setting * Realist writers sought to document every aspect of their own contemporary cultures through accurate representations of specific settings. ٠ the authors taking care to accurately portray the working and living conditions of characters fromevery echelon of society + realist novelists documented settings from all walks of life in major cities such as London, Paris, New York, Boston, Moscow, and St. Petersburg * The living and working conditions of peasants and serfs in rural settings throughout England, Russia, and France were also depicted in great detail by major realist authors ٠ Realist writers also set their fictional stories in the midst of specific historical events of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries like ‏مس‎ ‎Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities and The volume Evenings at Me) ‘dan and Eliot’s Middlemarch and Tolstoy’s War and Peace 

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Characterization + Many realist writers have been celebrated for their masterful creation of a wide range of characters from all walks of life. > Balzac, in his novel series The Human Comedy, created an encyclopedic range of characters representing every aspect of contemporary French society Balzac created over three thousand different characters » Balzac was also innovative in his use of the same characters in different novels, so that a character who is the protagonist of one novel may show up as a minor character in another novel » Zola, inspired by Balzac’s The Human Comedy, represented many aspects of French society through his twenty-volume series The Rougon- Macquarts, which centers on one family over several generations >» Howells, inspired by the French and Russian realists, included in his novel A Hazard of New Fortunes fifteen main characters representing a different place on the spectrum of Amer 

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» Dickens is also known for his many unforgettable characters, such as the miserable miser in A Christmas Carol, who have become enduring figures in Western culture. ۰ Realist novelists are also celebrated for the impressive psychological detail by which their fictional characters are portrayed » Dostoevsky and Flaubert, in particular, are known for their mastery at delving into every nuance of a character’s psychology in order to explain the complex array of factors which contribute to the motivation of that character. + In their efforts to represent characters from all walks of life, realist novelists were masterful in their use of dialogue, capturing regional dialects as well as differences in the speech patterns of people from different socioeconomic backgrounds. 

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MOVEMENT ORIGIN c. 1860 > Mid-nineteen centu France England Russia United States > Realist literature is best represented by the novel, including many works widely regarded to be among the greatest novels ever written. > Masters at : psychological characterization, detailed descriptions of everyday life, and dialogue that captures the idioms of natural speech. > Often theme socioeconomic based on poor people life and upper classes in rural and urban societies. 

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England & US Charles Dickens George Eliot Anthony Trollope William Dean Howells (US) Realist writers France Russia 1. Honore’ de Balzac 1. Ivan Turgenev 2. Gustave Flaubert 2. Fyodor Dostoevsky 3. E’ mile Zola 3. Leo Tolstoy 4. Guy de Maupassant 

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Realism offshoots > Naturalism————+ greater emphasis on the accurate representation of details from contemporary life. >» Regionalism in United states (American offshoots of realism) > Local color fictior Profound influenci drama theater set design costuming acting style dialogue 

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Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) Eugenie Grandet Bednyye lyudi (Poor Fol Henry James (1843-1916) Daisy Miller (1878) Portrait of a Lady (1881), Charles Dickens (1812-1870) Oliver Twist (1838) Hard times William Dean Howells (1837- 1920) A Modern Instance (1882) The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885) REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS Honore’ de Balzac (1799- 1850) La Come ‘die humaine (The Human Comedy) George Eliot (1819-1880) Adam Bede (1859) The Mill on the Floss (1860) 

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Emile Zola (1840-1902) Les Rougon-Macquart cre Rougon-Macquarts) \ Les Soire’es de Me’dan (Evenings at Me‘dan) Guy de Maupassant Leo Tolstoy (1850-1893) (1828-1910) La maison Tellier Voini i mir (1869; War and (1881) Peace) Tales of the Goose Anna Karenina (1877) 

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THEMES > Class conflict : One of the major themes addressed by realist writers is socioeconomic class conflict. Many realist writers, in their efforts to depict characters from all levels of society, highlighted differences between the rich and the poor. > The City: Many realist novelists sought to depict various aspects of life in the rapidly industrializing nineteenth-century city. > Philosophy and Morality: Realist novelists often address the related themes of religion, philosophy, and morality in their works of fiction. While realist novels are known for their accurate descriptions of various physical details, many of them are also highly theoretical in their presentation of various religious and philosophical debates. 

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STYEE > Narrative Voice: The term narrative voice refers to the way in which a story is told. Many realist writers sought to narrate their fictional stories in an omniscient, objective voice, from the perspective of a storyteller who is not a character in the story but rather an invisible presence who remains outside the realm of the story. > Setting: Realist novels were thus set in both the city and the country, the authors taking care to accurately portray the working and living conditions of characters from every echelon of society. > Characterization: Many realist writers have been celebrated for their masterful creation of a wide range of characters from all walks of life. we