Medical Botany

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1 Medical Botany Introduction: History of Plant Use in Medicine 

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4 Prehistoric times ™ No one knows where or when plants first began to be used to treat disease = Accidental discovery of some new plant food that eased pain might have been the beginning of folk knowledge = Early evidence: the grave of a Neanderthal man buried 60,000 years ago. Pollen analysis indicated that plants buried with the corpse were all of medicinal value 

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۱ + Recorded history = Earliest record 4,000 year old Sumerian clay tablet recorded numerous plant remedies = Ancient Egyptian civilization left a wealth of information on medicinal plants and medical practice 

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Ancient Egypt =" Wealth of knowledge in medicine = Physicians highly respected and very specialized = Several important medical papyri = Ebers Papyrus = Edwin Smith Papyrus « Hearst Papyrus = Kahun Gynecological Papyrus 

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Edwin Smith Papyrus = Purchased by Edwin Smith in Luxor, Egypt in 1862 =" Written around 1700 BC but most of the information is based on older records from around 2640 BC - Imhoteps time = Imhoteps was physician of 3rd Dynasty = The papyrus mainly covers wounds, and how to treat them 

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4 Ebers Papyrus = From 1550 B.C. one of the oldest = Most important and complete medical Papyrus recovered " Hieratic script (similar to hieroglyphics) = 20.23 m in length and 30 cm. in height = 110 pages scroll contains 700 magical formulas and folk remedies 

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4 Ebers Papyrus = Purchased in Luxor in 1862 by Edwin Smith = Said to have been found between the legs of a mummy on the west bank = Possibly came from tomb of a doctor = Purchased by Georg Ebers in 1873 = Now in Germany at University Library of Leipzig 

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4 Ebers Papyrus = Contains chapters on = intestinal disease = ophthalmology = dermatology = gynecology, obstetrics, pregnancy diagnosis, contraception = dentistry = surgical treatment of abscesses, tumors, fractures and burns 

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4 Ebers Papyrus = Also includes: = Description of the circulatory system = existence of blood vessels throughout the body = heart’s function as a center of the blood supply = References to diabetes mellitus, hookworm and filariasis, arthritis = Section on psychiatry - describes a condition of severe despondency 

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4 Ancient China = The Pun-tsao, a pharmacopoeia published around 1600 = Contained thousands of herbal cures that are attributed to the works of Shen-nung, China's legendary Emperor who lived 4500 years ago = Emperor Shen-nung investigated the medicinal value of several hundred herbs = Knowledge passed on orally for centuries = Use of Ephedra for asthma one of these 

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۱ Ancient India = Herbal medicine dates back several thousand years to the Rig-Veda, the collection of Hindu sacred verses = This is the basis of a health care system known as Ayurvedic medicine = One useful plant that has come from Ayurvedic tradition is snakeroot, Rauwolfia serpentina 

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Foundations of western siemedicine = These ancient records indicate that in all parts of the world native peoples discovered and developed medicinal uses of local plants =" Herbal medicine of ancient Greece laid the foundations of our Western medicine 

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Ancient Greek and Roman medicine = Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), the Father of Medicine used various herbal remedies in his treatments = Theophrastus - Father of Botany = Roman physician Dioscorides (1st century A.D.) wrote De Materia Medica which contained an account of over 600 species of plants with medicinal value = Roman physician Galen (2nd century) 

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4 De Materia Medica = Pharmacopoeia which was universally used in the Greek, Roman and Arab worlds from the 2nd century till 16th = In De Materia Medica, Dioscorides listed 600 plants, 90 minerals and 30 animal products, with a drawing of each one and a note of its therapeutic properties 

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Illustrations from De Materia Medica 

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4 De Materia Medica = Descriptions of plants, directions on the preparation, uses, and side effects = Many still in use = willow bark tea - precursor to aspirin = Some have been lost = Greek and Roman women used silphium as an effective contraceptive for 1,000 yrs - now extinct = Standard medical reference for 1500 years 

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4 Silphium or Silphion = A plant in the genus Feru/a - parsley family = Related to giant fennel (not the cooking herb) = Used by ancient women for contraception = During Greek and Roman Civilization, rare plant growing in a narrow 30 mile band along the dry mountain sides facing the Mediterranean Sea in northern Africa near the city of Cyrene (area is now part of Libya) 

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Silphium on Ancient Greek Coins 

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۶ Fall of Rome = Little new knowledge was added in Europe during the Dark Ages = De Materia Medica was copied and recopied = New illustrations = Translations into other languages = Annotations = Some of the most famous copies made during this time = Knowledge added in Arab world 

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4 During the Middle Ages = Western knowledge preserved in monasteries = Manuscripts were translated or copied for monastery libraries =" The monks gathered herbs in the field, or raised them in their own herb gardens = These were prepared for the sick and injured = Monastery gardens still may be found in many countries 

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The First Apothecary Shops = First drug stores established by Moslems in Bagdad late in the 8th century = Arab physicians not only preserved the Greco-Roman wisdom, but added to it = When the Moslems swept across Africa, Spain and southern France, some of their practices were introduced to Europe = Crusades introduced more Islamic plant knowledge and practices back to Europe 

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۱ Avicenna = Ibn Sina (about 980-1037 A.D.), a Persian who was called Avicenna by the Western world = Pharmacist, poet, physician, philosopher and diplomat - considered a genius = His pharmaceutical and medical teachings were accepted as authority in the West until the 17th century 

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+ Age of herbals = Beginning of Renaissance in the early 15th century saw a renewal of learning in all fields = Botanically - revival of herbalism for medicinal plants =" Coupled with the invention of the printing press in 1440 ushered in the Age of Herbals 

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Herbals = Beautifully illustrated books that described plants = When to collect, useful parts =" Medicinal and culinary uses = Also included a lot of misinformation and superstition = Often advocated the Doctrine of Signatures 

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4 Doctrine of Signatures = Medicinal use recognized by distinct "signatures" visible on the plant which corresponded to human anatomy = Red juice of bloodwort to treat blood disorders ۴ ‏یب‎ appearance of liverworts to aid the iver = Belief in this concept developed independently among different cultures 

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Medicine and Botany = During this time, medical schools were established in Europe = Study of both medicine and botany = Medical students knew the herbs = These were the early botanists 

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0 18th ۷ = As science progressed, a dichotomy in medicine developed between practitioners of herbal medicine and regular physicians = About this same time a similar split occurred between herbalism and scientific botany 

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4 Path to modern medicine = Many herbal remedies had a sound scientific basis =" Some became useful prescriptions drugs = William Withering was the first to scientifically investigate a folk remedy = His studies (1775-1785) of foxglove to treat dropsy (congestive heart failure) set standard for pharmaceutical chemistry 

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۱ 19th Century = Scientists began purifying the active extracts from medicinal plants = Breakthrough in pharmaceutical chemistry came when Serturner isolated morphine from opium poppy in 1806 = First synthetic drugs were developed in the middle of the 19th century based on natural products 

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20th Century = Direct use of plant extracts continued to decrease in the late 19th and 20th centuries = Today medicinal plants still contribute significantly to prescription drugs = 25% of prescriptions written in the U.S. contain plant-derived active ingredients = 50% if fungal products are included = An even larger percent based on semi- synthetic or wholly synthetic ingredients originally isolated from plants 

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Late 20th to early 21st 4 centuries = Renewed interest in investigating plants for medically useful compounds = Recent success of Taxol’ from the Pacific yew tree has shown that this interest is worth pursuing 

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Growth of Alternative Medicine = Dramatic increase in the use of alternative medical treatments = Complementary and Alternative Medicine - CAM = Refers to a wide range of therapies outside the mainstream of traditional Western medicine: = aromatherapy, acupuncture, biofeedback, chiropractic manipulation, herbal medicine, hypnosis, and massage therapy 

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CAM = Plants and plant extracts (often called botanicals) figure prominently in alternative treatments = herbal remedies " aromatherapy = Sales of herbal remedies amount to approximately $3 billion per year in the U.S. and constitute close to 30% of the total sales for dietary supplements 

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4 Dietary Supplements = Herbal remedies considered “dietary supplements” by the U.S. FDA = Traditionally, dietary supplements referred to vitamins, minerals, other essential nutrients = Dietary Supplement Health Education Act of 1994 expanded the category to include other products such as herbs, other botanicals, amino acids, and metabolites 

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FDA Regulations = Dietary supplements are not required to undergo the same type of testing or approval that are required for prescription drugs or over-the-counter drugs = FDA requires extensive testing and clinical studies of drugs to determine their safety, proper dosages, effectiveness, possible side effects and interactions with other substances = Dietary supplements are not subject to these 

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DSHEA = Based on the DSHEA, the manufacturer of a dietary supplement is responsible for ensuring that the product is safe = Prior approval is not required before sale = FDA has responsibility to take action if a dietary supplement is later shown unsafe = In 2001, comfrey (Symphytim officinale) removed from products due to liver toxicity 

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4 Herbal remedies = Although not considered drugs by FDA, most contain active compounds that may offer health benefits or possibly cause adverse reactions = 40% of US population using some form of CAM - many do not tell physicians = Many can react with prescription medication - i.e., Ginkgo 

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Traditional (herbal) medicine today =" 75%-90% of the population in developing nations rely on herbal medicine as their only health care = Medicinal herbs are sold alongside vegetables in village markets = Practitioners of herbal medicine undergo extensive training to learn the plants, their uses, and preparation of remedies 

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People's Republic of China = Traditional herbal medicine incorporated into a modern health care system = Blend of herbal medicine, acupuncture, and Western medicine = Thousands of species of medicinal herbs are available for the Chinese herbalist = Chinese apothecaries contain an incredible assortment of dried plant specimens = Prescriptions filled with blends of specific herbs 

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+ India = Traditional systems separate from Western medicine = At universities medical students are trained in Western medicine = Most people use traditional systems: = Ayurvedic medicine - Hindu origin = Unani medicine - Muslim and Greek origin = Economics also a factor - manufactured pharmaceuticals too expensive for most 

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۱ Other areas = Interest in medicinal plants has focused on indigenous peoples in many parts of the world = Ethnobotanists are spending time with local tribes and learning their medical lore before they are lost forever = Especially important among native peoples in the tropical rain forests 

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۱ + Tropical rain forests = Widespread destruction threatens to eliminate thousands of species that have never been scientifically investigated for medical potential Erosion of tribal cultures is also a threat to the knowledge of herbal practices As younger members of native groups are drawn away from tribal lifestyles, oral traditions are not passed on 

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WHO encourages the practice and improvement of traditional medicine = 75 to 85% of the world’s people still rely on traditional medicine to provide basic healthcare = The native materia medica, derived from locally available medicinal plants, is the mainstay of this grass-roots ethnomedical system = Documentation of these folk pharmacopoeias can expand the traditional healer’s place in world = Diagnostic criteria and diseases in conventional medicine need to be correlated with those in traditional medicine