روش تحقیق در انگلیسی ( Glossary)

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Glossary 

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Glossary: A brief and highly selective list of words and abbreviation that you are likely to come across when doing research in literature. A + Accidentals: The factors that determine a word’s appearance on the page > Spelling » Capitalization » Word division > Punctuation 1 Allegory: Figurative description or narrative with hidden meaning > Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress 

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* Aslib: The Association for Information Management » The Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux » A forum for discussion and exchange of information * Augustan: Term applied to late seventeenth and early eighteenth- century English literature » This period the epoch of Virgil, Horace and Ovid showed a concern for decorum, urbanity and “correctness”. 

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B * Bibliographical ghost: Book that has never really existed » the result of an error in transcription, in editing or in printing during the production of a catalogue or bibliography Should not be confused with > A book that was cancelled in the press and was therefore never published » A book that was published but of which no copies now exist * Bibliography (analytical): technical investigation of the printing of specific books or general printing practice, based exclusively on the physical evidence of the books themselves 

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* Bibliography (descriptive): use of techniques of analytical bibliography to describe the format and printing history of specific book or books. * Bibliography (enumerative): the recording and enumeration of all known editions printed during a defined period or in a specific region or country ¥ the entries are usually listed alphabetically by author ¥ title and frequently contain information on the location of copies. * Bibliography (historical): the study of the book as a product of material resources and technical processes Y as the materials change and processes evolve, so do the nature and form of the book. 

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* Bibliography (textual): application of analytical bibliography to the editing of texts, particularly where a question of meaning is involved. * BLAISE: British Library Automated Information Service * Blank verse: unrhymed verse, in iambic pentameters Y peculiar to English verse ¥ first used by the Earl of Surrey in his translation of Books 2 and 4 of Virgil’s Aeneid + BUCOP: British Union Catalogue of Periodicals. 

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6 C. : abbreviation of the Latin circa (‘around [date]’). Caesura: a heavy pause in, or near, the middle of a verse line. Canon: on the analogy of the biblical: the books of the Bible regarded as Scripture the term ‘the literary canon’: those works of literature regarded as possessing especial authority or literarymerit. Catchword: first word of the next page printed at the foot of the preceding \ page catchwords were a common feature of books until the nineteenth century, and 1 were used by printers as a means of telling which page followed which during imposition. 

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* Catharsis: term applied by Aristotle in his Poetics to the + function of tragedy in purifying the emotions of pity and terror by vicarious experience of them in the theatre. * cd-rom: compact disc with read-only memory * Collate: to compare (usually) a copy-text with other available versions of a text in order to detect variants in the text * this is usually done to establish the best or most likely reading of a given word or line, and to plot the bibliographic history of a text * This process is now made somewhat easier by such machines as the Hinman Collating Machine, which optically superimposes two texts so that they can be compared * copy-text:copy of a manuscript or printed version of a text that is chosen by an editor as the basis for a critical edition. 

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* Deconstruction: A ‘deconstructive’ reading of a text tries to bring out the logic of the text’s language as opposed to the logic of the author's claims or intentions, and it is governed by the theory ¥ that concepts tend to involve their opposites ¥ that language is a labyrinth from which there is no escape, there being no ‘real world’ that serves as its boundary or external point of reference. * Diachronic: occurring in succession, as opposed to synchronic. i * dialogic structure: ¥ ‘dialogic’ has been given currency by the Russian scholar Mikhail Bakhtin ¥ language is always social in that by its nature it presupposes dialogue with others. Y He sees the novel as the most dialogical of literary forms in its capacity to subvert the single (monological) voice of the author. 

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Duodecimo: book format produced when the original sheet has been folded so as to produce, twelve leaves (24 pages). Because the sheet has been folded a number of times, this format tends to be ver small commonly abbreviated to 12mo. 

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Edition: ‘all the copies of a book printed at any time (or times) from substanti the same setting of type, includes all the various impressions Issues states which may have been derived from that setting edition (critical): authoritative edition of a given work, whose aim is to presen a text as close as possible to the author's original or ultimate intentions \ the edition is based on a copy-text lists textual variants and is often extensively annotated. % ‘Ree AN 

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edition (variorum): an edition that lists all the variants in the author’s manuscript and in edition! other than the copy-text; an edition that includes some of the annotations and commentaries of previous! editors. Some variorum editions do both, for example The New Variorum Shakespeare Elegy: although originally a much broader term, since the sixteenth century this has come to mean a poem lamenting the death of (usually) a specific person. \ Enjambement: when the end of a line of verse does not correspond to any natural speech-pause, there is said to be enjambement A line of which this is true is called a run-on line £ for example: ‘Instead of sweets, his ample palate took/Savour of poisonous brass and metal sick’ 

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۰ Epic: long narrative poem written in an elevated style about a great or heroic subject + the term is also sometimes applied to large-scale novels that tackle many subjects and deal with a multitude of characters ¥ (for example, Tolstoy’s War and Peace). ۰ Exegesis: originally a commentary on a particular biblical text; now used to mean a rigorous analysis and explication of any text. * external evidence: any evidence—not derived from the text itself—for \ the authorship, intended meaning, circumstances of production, or date, of a particular work it includes ¥ biographical information Y as well as evidence from analytical and other bibliographical studies ¥ from publishing history 

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F * fl.: used of a writer whose birth and/or death dates are not known, but who was alive and active around the time specified. Folio: large book format produced when the printed sheet is folded only once Format: size and shape of a book. Standard formats are folio Quarto Octavo Duodecimo تيقبة که + these are relative sizes, as the exact dimensions of a book depend on the size of the original sheets on which it is printed. 

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G Gathering: ‘pamphlet-like’ section of a book produced when the printer folds and cuts the original printed sheet. A gathering is usually of two, four, eight, twelve or sixteen leaves, depending on the number of folds made,the number of folds determines the format of the book. A number of gatherings are sewn together to make the final book Gothic: in its literal sense, pertaining to the Goths who invaded the Roman Empire. Retrospectively, it was used to describe a set of building styles prevalent in Europe between the late twelfth and early sixteenth centuries. 

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H + Hermeneutics: originally the study of biblical interpretation, but now used more generally to mean the study of the nature and theory of interpretation. ۷ From the Greek hermeneus + heroic couplets: rhymed iambic pentameters, a form much used by Dryden and Pope. 

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+ ibid.: used when making a second or subsequent reference to the same work where there is no intervening reference to another work. * Idyll: lyrical poem usually depicting an idealized version of rural or pastoral life 8 Imposition: creation of a composed area of type large enough to print a whole sheet of paper at one time. ۲۷ This was done by taking the required number of pages of movable type \ and locking them firmly, in the correct order for printing, in a rectangular iron frame by means of wooden blocks and wedges. 7” The result of this process was a ‘forme’. 

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۴ Impression: all those copies of an edition printed at one time. * internal evidence: any evidence for the authorship, intended meaning, circumstances of production, or date, of a particular work derived from the text itself Y for example, stylistic features and references to events contemporary with the writing 

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L Leaf: single piece of paper, being two pages back to back. Letterpress: has two meanings: the text of a book (including any line illustrations) but not its plates (if any) printing from raised type or blocks (as opposed to printing from lithographic plates). Logocentrism: term used by Jacques Derrida to refer to the priority given to the spoken word in Western philosophy—with the further implication that a text will be governed by a centre which is not itself part of the text's structure. 

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۳ Metaphor: naming or describing something in terms of something else as for instance speaking of the ‘neck’ of a bottle or of ‘swallowing’ an insult. In a broad sense it includes: Metonymy synecdoche simile. Metonymy: rhetorical figure by which the name of an attribute is substituted for the thing itself as for instance the use of the word ‘throne’ to signify monarchy. 

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* Metre: the commonest metres in English are ¥ the iambic ۷۶ ۱۵ ¥ the anapaestic ¥ the dactylic ۷ metres composed of the type of feet known respectively as iambs, trochees, anapaests and dactyls. ٠ lamb: foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable Y for example, ‘pretend’ ٠ Trochee: foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed Y for example, ‘gaily’ * Anapaest: foot consisting of two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed ۷ for example, ‘disinclined’ 1 * Dactyl: foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables for example, ‘gloomily’ 

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the metres of English verse have been given names taken from Greek and Latin prosody. Greek and Latin verse works on a different principle from English verse: Greek and Latin verse is ‘quantitative’, i.e. a matter of the alternation of ‘long’ and ‘short’ syllables English metre is a matter of the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. In practice, a metrical label gives only a very rough description of the rhythmical effect of a particular poem Microform: generic terms meaning manuscripts and books that have been photographically reproduced on a very small scale—for reading on special machines. The two most common forms are: Microfiche microfilm 

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microfiche: sheet of film (normally about 13x8 cm) that allows ‘random access’ microfilm: usually a roll of 35mm film with one or two pages reproduced per frame. N Narratology: theoretical study of the various forms of narrative. n.d.: no known date (or ‘not dated’). Any date in brackets that follows this can be assumed to be the product of an educated guess. If the date is known but not printed in the book, then it should appear in square brackets thus: [1970]. 

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* 1.P.: no known place of publication. Y Any place in brackets that follows this can be assumed to be the product of an educated guess. 0 ۰ 062۷0: ۵۵ produced when the original sheet is folded three times to produce a gathering of eight leaves * Ode: ong lyric poem, dignified in style and serious in subject-matter, often a formal address to a person or personified subject * OPAC: this system allows a user to access and search an electronic library catalogue via the Internet and the Web. 

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Page: has two meanings: one side of a leaf type arranged for the printing of one side of a leaf Passim: Latin for ‘everywhere’ (or ‘throughout’). In other words, ‘references to this subject are found throughout the work’. Pastoral: the representing of urban or civilized existence under the disguise of an idealized rural one. Periodical: serial normally issued at regular intervals press-mark: numbers and/or letters indicating the location of a given book in a library that has fixed locations In practice, such libraries tend to have controlled access rather than being open-access libraries 3 

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9 quantitative verse: poetry written on the Greek and Latin principle of the alternation of long and short syllables, rather than of stressed and unstressed syllables. As English tends to be an accentual language the writing ofEnglish quantitative verse has proved neither very easy nor very rewarding. Quarto: book format produced when the original sheet is folded twice to produce a gathering of four leaves. / Quire: ‘pamphlet’ produced when the printer folds and cuts his original sheet. 

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Recto: front of a leaf 5 Semiology: science of signs. It studies signs as a form of language and, like structuralism, is influenced by the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure Serial: any work issued at intervals in successive parts, sometimes irregularly and frequently with no expected limit on the number of parts. Sheet: large piece of paper which, when printed and folded, goes to make up a gathering, quire or signature. Every book is composed of a series of such gatherings sewn or stuck together. The number of pages printed is determined by the number of times the sheet is to be folded. Sheets vary in size, so format names are only an approximate indication of size. v 

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* signature.: has two meanings: ¥ printed sheet folded and cut; there are two synonyms for this gathering and quire Y printer's mark that appears at the foot of the recto of the first leaf of a gathering ¥ these marks are used by the binder to make sure that the gatherings are assembled in the correct order. ۷ Catchwords were used for the same purpose. ٠ Simile: metaphorical comparison introduced by ‘as’, ‘like’ + Sonnet: verse-form consisting, in English, of fourteen iambic pentameter lines ¥ ‘Miltonic’ sonnets rhyme abbaabbacdecde, or have a very similar arrangement v whereas most Shakespearian sonnets rhyme ababcdcdefefgg. The first eight lines of a sonnet are frequently called the ‘octave’, and the last six lines the‘sestet’. 

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* Structuralism: theory that human activities are structured like a languag: ¥ The movement was inspired by the theories put forward by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his Cours de linguistique générale (1916) ¥ according to which language is a system of differences ¥ its terms conveying meaning only in relation to other terms ¥ The structural anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss represents the culture of primitive societies as organized around binary differences or oppositions, such as raw versus cooked. Synchronic: occurring simultaneously Synecdoche: figure of speech in which a part is used for a whole or a whole for a part for example, ‘all hands were on deck’ for example, ‘Pakistan won the test’ eS 

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U * union catalogue: catalogue that lists the holdings of two or more libraries ‎for example, The British Union Catalogue of Periodicals lists the serial‏ “ا ‎holdings of around 400 British libraries.‏ ‎۷ ‎* Variant: alternative reading of a given word or passage in a text ‎ ‎¥ for example, in the line from Hamlet: ‘O that this too, too solid flesh would melt’ ¥ the variants for ‘solid’ found in other editions include ‘sallied’ and ‘sullied’. ‎* Verso: back of a leaf ‎* Vide: Latin for ‘see’. 

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Ww ٠ Web: the World Wide Web or WWW; that part of the Internet which allows the easy transmission, not just of text but also of graphics, audio and video. ۷ It is also characterized by the use of hypertext, which allows a user to jump from one piece of information to a related piece by means of ‘hot’ links between words or phrases in different documents, or in different parts of the same document.