Chapter 24: Advanced Data Types and New Applications
اسلاید 1: 1Chapter 24: Advanced Data Types and New ApplicationsTemporal DataSpatial and Geographic DatabasesMultimedia DatabasesMobility and Personal Databases
اسلاید 2: 2Time In DatabasesWhile most databases tend to model reality at a point in time (at the ``current time), temporal databases model the states of the real world across time.Facts in temporal relations have associated times when they are valid, which can be represented as a union of intervals.The transaction time for a fact is the time interval during which the fact is current within the database system.In a temporal relation, each tuple has an associated time when it is true; the time may be either valid time or transaction time.A bi-temporal relation stores both valid and transaction time.
اسلاید 3: 3Time In Databases (Cont.)Example of a temporal relation:Temporal query languages have been proposed to simplify modeling of time as well as time related queries.
اسلاید 4: 4Time Specification in SQL-92date: four digits for the year (1--9999), two digits for the month (1--12), and two digits for the date (1--31).time: two digits for the hour, two digits for the minute, and two digits for the second, plus optional fractional digits.timestamp: the fields of date and time, with six fractional digits for the seconds field.Times are specified in the Universal Coordinated Time, abbreviated UTC (from the French); supports time with time zone.interval: refers to a period of time (e.g., 2 days and 5 hours), without specifying a particular time when this period starts; could more accurately be termed a span.
اسلاید 5: 5Temporal Query LanguagesPredicates precedes, overlaps, and contains on time intervals.Intersect can be applied on two intervals, to give a single (possibly empty) interval; the union of two intervals may or may not be a single interval.A snapshot of a temporal relation at time t consists of the tuples that are valid at time t, with the time-interval attributes projected out. Temporal selection: involves time attributesTemporal projection: the tuples in the projection inherit their time-intervals from the tuples in the original relation.Temporal join: the time-interval of a tuple in the result is the intersection of the time-intervals of the tuples from which it is derived. It intersection is empty, tuple is discarded from join.
اسلاید 6: 6Temporal Query Languages (Cont.)Functional dependencies must be used with care: adding a time field may invalidate functional dependency A temporal functional dependency x Y holds on a relation schema R if, for all legal instances r of R, all snapshots of r satisfy the functional dependency X Y.SQL:1999 Part 7 (SQL/Temporal) is a proposed extension to SQL:1999 to improve support of temporal data.
اسلاید 7: 7Spatial and Geographic Databases
اسلاید 8: 8Spatial and Geographic DatabasesSpatial databases store information related to spatial locations, and support efficient storage, indexing and querying of spatial data.Special purpose index structures are important for accessing spatial data, and for processing spatial join queries.Computer Aided Design (CAD) databases store design information about how objects are constructed E.g.: designs of buildings, aircraft, layouts of integrated-circuitsGeographic databases store geographic information (e.g., maps): often called geographic information systems or GIS.
اسلاید 9: 9Represented of Geometric InformationVarious geometric constructs can be represented in a database in a normalized fashion.Represent a line segment by the coordinates of its endpoints.Approximate a curve by partitioning it into a sequence of segmentsCreate a list of vertices in order, orRepresent each segment as a separate tuple that also carries with it the identifier of the curve (2D features such as roads).Closed polygonsList of vertices in order, starting vertex is the same as the ending vertex, orRepresent boundary edges as separate tuples, with each containing identifier of the polygon, orUse triangulation — divide polygon into trianglesNote the polygon identifier with each of its triangles.
اسلاید 10: 10Representation of Geometric Constructs
اسلاید 11: 11Representation of Geometric Information (Cont.)Representation of points and line segment in 3-D similar to 2-D, except that points have an extra z componentRepresent arbitrary polyhedra by dividing them into tetrahedrons, like triangulating polygons.Alternative: List their faces, each of which is a polygon, along with an indication of which side of the face is inside the polyhedron.
اسلاید 12: 12Design DatabasesRepresent design components as objects (generally geometric objects); the connections between the objects indicate how the design is structured.Simple two-dimensional objects: points, lines, triangles, rectangles, polygons.Complex two-dimensional objects: formed from simple objects via union, intersection, and difference operations.Complex three-dimensional objects: formed from simpler objects such as spheres, cylinders, and cuboids, by union, intersection, and difference operations.Wireframe models represent three-dimensional surfaces as a set of simpler objects.
اسلاید 13: 13Representation of Geometric ConstructsDesign databases also store non-spatial information about objects (e.g., construction material, color, etc.)Spatial integrity constraints are important.E.g., pipes should not intersect, wires should not be too close to each other, etc.(a) Difference of cylinders(b) Union of cylinders
اسلاید 14: 14Geographic DataRaster data consist of bit maps or pixel maps, in two or more dimensions.Example 2-D raster image: satellite image of cloud cover, where each pixel stores the cloud visibility in a particular area.Additional dimensions might include the temperature at different altitudes at different regions, or measurements taken at different points in time.Design databases generally do not store raster data.
اسلاید 15: 15Geographic Data (Cont.)Vector data are constructed from basic geometric objects: points, line segments, triangles, and other polygons in two dimensions, and cylinders, speheres, cuboids, and other polyhedrons in three dimensions.Vector format often used to represent map data.Roads can be considered as two-dimensional and represented by lines and curves.Some features, such as rivers, may be represented either as complex curves or as complex polygons, depending on whether their width is relevant.Features such as regions and lakes can be depicted as polygons.
اسلاید 16: 16Applications of Geographic DataExamples of geographic datamap data for vehicle navigationdistribution network information for power, telephones, water supply, and sewageVehicle navigation systems store information about roads and services for the use of drivers:Spatial data: e.g, road/restaurant/gas-station coordinatesNon-spatial data: e.g., one-way streets, speed limits, traffic congestionGlobal Positioning System (GPS) unit - utilizes information broadcast from GPS satellites to find the current location of user with an accuracy of tens of meters.increasingly used in vehicle navigation systems as well as utility maintenance applications.
اسلاید 17: 17Spatial QueriesNearness queries request objects that lie near a specified location.Nearest neighbor queries, given a point or an object, find the nearest object that satisfies given conditions.Region queries deal with spatial regions. e.g., ask for objects that lie partially or fully inside a specified region.Queries that compute intersections or unions of regions.Spatial join of two spatial relations with the location playing the role of join attribute.
اسلاید 18: 18Spatial Queries (Cont.)Spatial data is typically queried using a graphical query language; results are also displayed in a graphical manner.Graphical interface constitutes the front-endExtensions of SQL with abstract data types, such as lines, polygons and bit maps, have been proposed to interface with back-end.allows relational databases to store and retrieve spatial informationQueries can use spatial conditions (e.g. contains or overlaps).queries can mix spatial and nonspatial conditions
اسلاید 19: 19Indexing of Spatial Datak-d tree - early structure used for indexing in multiple dimensions.Each level of a k-d tree partitions the space into two.choose one dimension for partitioning at the root level of the tree.choose another dimensions for partitioning in nodes at the next level and so on, cycling through the dimensions.In each node, approximately half of the points stored in the sub-tree fall on one side and half on the other.Partitioning stops when a node has less than a given maximum number of points.The k-d-B tree extends the k-d tree to allow multiple child nodes for each internal node; well-suited for secondary storage.
اسلاید 20: 20Division of Space by a k-d TreeEach line in the figure (other than the outside box) corresponds to a node in the k-d treethe maximum number of points in a leaf node has been set to 1.The numbering of the lines in the figure indicates the level of the tree at which the corresponding node appears.
اسلاید 21: 21Division of Space by QuadtreesQuadtreesEach node of a quadtree is associated with a rectangular region of space; the top node is associated with the entire target space.Each non-leaf nodes divides its region into four equal sized quadrants correspondingly each such node has four child nodes corresponding to the four quadrants and so onLeaf nodes have between zero and some fixed maximum number of points (set to 1 in example).
اسلاید 22: 22Quadtrees (Cont.)PR quadtree: stores points; space is divided based on regions, rather than on the actual set of points stored.Region quadtrees store array (raster) information.A node is a leaf node is all the array values in the region that it covers are the same. Otherwise, it is subdivided further into four children of equal area, and is therefore an internal node.Each node corresponds to a sub-array of values.The sub-arrays corresponding to leaves either contain just a single array element, or have multiple array elements, all of which have the same value.Extensions of k-d trees and PR quadtrees have been proposed to index line segments and polygonsRequire splitting segments/polygons into pieces at partitioning boundariesSame segment/polygon may be represented at several leaf nodes
اسلاید 23: 23R-TreesR-trees are a N-dimensional extension of B+-trees, useful for indexing sets of rectangles and other polygons.Supported in many modern database systems, along with variants like R+ -trees and R*-trees.Basic idea: generalize the notion of a one-dimensional interval associated with each B+ -tree node to an N-dimensional interval, that is, an N-dimensional rectangle.Will consider only the two-dimensional case (N = 2) generalization for N > 2 is straightforward, although R-trees work well only for relatively small N
اسلاید 24: 24R Trees (Cont.) A rectangular bounding box is associated with each tree node.Bounding box of a leaf node is a minimum sized rectangle that contains all the rectangles/polygons associated with the leaf node.The bounding box associated with a non-leaf node contains the bounding box associated with all its children.Bounding box of a node serves as its key in its parent node (if any)Bounding boxes of children of a node are allowed to overlapA polygon is stored only in one node, and the bounding box of the node must contain the polygonThe storage efficiency or R-trees is better than that of k-d trees or quadtrees since a polygon is stored only once
اسلاید 25: 25Example R-TreeA set of rectangles (solid line) and the bounding boxes (dashed line) of the nodes of an R-tree for the rectangles. The R-tree is shown on the right.
اسلاید 26: 26Search in R-Trees To find data items (rectangles/polygons) intersecting (overlaps) a given query point/region, do the following, starting from the root node:If the node is a leaf node, output the data items whose keys intersect the given query point/region.Else, for each child of the current node whose bounding box overlaps the query point/region, recursively search the childCan be very inefficient in worst case since multiple paths may need to be searchedbut works acceptably in practice.Simple extensions of search procedure to handle predicates contained-in and contains
اسلاید 27: 27Insertion in R-TreesTo insert a data item:Find a leaf to store it, and add it to the leafTo find leaf, follow a child (if any) whose bounding box contains bounding box of data item, else child whose overlap with data item bounding box is maximumHandle overflows by splits (as in B+ -trees) Split procedure is different though (see below)Adjust bounding boxes starting from the leaf upwardsSplit procedure:Goal: divide entries of an overfull node into two sets such that the bounding boxes have minimum total area This is a heuristic. Alternatives like minimum overlap are possibleFinding the “best” split is expensive, use heuristics insteadSee next slide
اسلاید 28: 28Splitting an R-Tree NodeQuadratic split divides the entries in a node into two new nodes as followsFind pair of entries with “maximum separation” that is, the pair such that the bounding box of the two would has the maximum wasted space (area of bounding box – sum of areas of two entries)Place these entries in two new nodesRepeatedly find the entry with “maximum preference” for one of the two new nodes, and assign the entry to that nodePreference of an entry to a node is the increase in area of bounding box if the entry is added to the other nodeStop when half the entries have been added to one nodeThen assign remaining entries to the other node Cheaper linear split heuristic works in time linear in number of entries,Cheaper but generates slightly worse splits.
اسلاید 29: 29Deleting in R-TreesDeletion of an entry in an R-tree done much like a B+-tree deletion.In case of underfull node, borrow entries from a sibling if possible, else merging sibling nodesAlternative approach removes all entries from the underfull node, deletes the node, then reinserts all entries
اسلاید 30: 30Multimedia Databases
اسلاید 31: 31Multimedia DatabasesTo provide such database functions as indexing and consistency, it is desirable to store multimedia data in a database rather than storing them outside the database, in a file systemThe database must handle large object representation.Similarity-based retrieval must be provided by special index structures.Must provide guaranteed steady retrieval rates for continuous-media data.
اسلاید 32: 32Multimedia Data FormatsStore and transmit multimedia data in compressed formJPEG and GIF the most widely used formats for image data.MPEG standard for video data use commonalties among a sequence of frames to achieve a greater degree of compression.MPEG-1 quality comparable to VHS video tape.stores a minute of 30-frame-per-second video and audio in approximately 12.5 MB MPEG-2 designed for digital broadcast systems and digital video disks; negligible loss of video quality.Compresses 1 minute of audio-video to approximately 17 MB.Several alternatives of audio encodingMPEG-1 Layer 3 (MP3), RealAudio, WindowsMedia format, etc.
اسلاید 33: 33Continuous-Media DataMost important types are video and audio data.Characterized by high data volumes and real-time information-delivery requirements.Data must be delivered sufficiently fast that there are no gaps in the audio or video.Data must be delivered at a rate that does not cause overflow of system buffers.Synchronization among distinct data streams must be maintained video of a person speaking must show lips moving synchronously with the audio
اسلاید 34: 34Video ServersVideo-on-demand systems deliver video from central video servers, across a network, to terminals Must guarantee end-to-end delivery ratesCurrent video-on-demand servers are based on file systems; existing database systems do not meet real-time response requirements.Multimedia data are stored on several disks (RAID configuration), or on tertiary storage for less frequently accessed data.Head-end terminals - used to view multimedia dataPCs or TVs attached to a small, inexpensive computer called a set-top box.
اسلاید 35: 35Similarity-Based RetrievalExamples of similarity based retrievalPictorial data: Two pictures or images that are slightly different as represented in the database may be considered the same by a user.E.g., identify similar designs for registering a new trademark.Audio data: Speech-based user interfaces allow the user to give a command or identify a data item by speaking. E.g., test user input against stored commands.Handwritten data: Identify a handwritten data item or command stored in the database
اسلاید 36: 36Mobility
اسلاید 37: 37Mobile Computing EnvironmentsA mobile computing environment consists of mobile computers, referred to as mobile hosts, and a wired network of computers.Mobile host may be able to communicate with wired network through a wireless digital communication networkWireless local-area networks (within a building)E.g. Avaya’s Orinico Wireless LANWide areas networksCellular digital packet networks3 G and 2.5 G cellular networks
اسلاید 38: 38Mobile Computing Environments (Cont.)A model for mobile communicationMobile hosts communicate to the wired network via computers referred to as mobile support (or base) stations.Each mobile support station manages those mobile hosts within its cell.When mobile hosts move between cells, there is a handoff of control from one mobile support station to another. Direct communication, without going through a mobile support station is also possible between nearby mobile hostsSupported, for e.g., by the Bluetooth standard (up to 10 meters, atup to 721 kbps)
اسلاید 39: 39Database Issues in Mobile ComputingNew issues for query optimization. Connection time charges and number of bytes transmittedEnergy (battery power) is a scarce resource and its usage must be minimizedMobile user’s locations may be a parameter of the queryGIS queriesTechniques to track locations of large numbers of mobile hostsBroadcast data can enable any number of clients to receive the same data at no extra cost leads to interesting querying and data caching issues.Users may need to be able to perform database updates even while the mobile computer is disconnected.e.g., mobile salesman records sale of products on (local copy of) database.Can result in conflicts detected on reconnection, which may need to be resolved manually.
اسلاید 40: 40Routing and Query ProcessingMust consider these competing costs:User time.Communication costConnection time - used to assign monetary charges in some cellular systems.Number of bytes, or packets, transferred - used to compute charges in digital cellular systemsTime-of-day based charges - vary based on peak or off-peak periodsEnergy - optimize use of battery power by minimizing reception and transmission of data. Receiving radio signals requires much less energy than transmitting radio signals.
اسلاید 41: 41Broadcast DataMobile support stations can broadcast frequently-requested dataAllows mobile hosts to wait for needed data, rather than having to consume energy transmitting a requestSupports mobile hosts without transmission capabilityA mobile host may optimize energy costs by determining if a query can be answered using only cached dataIf not then must either;Wait for the data to be broadcastTransmit a request for data and must know when the relevant data will be broadcast.Broadcast data may be transmitted according to a fixed schedule or a changeable schedule.For changeable schedule: the broadcast schedule must itself be broadcast at a well-known radio frequency and at well-known time intervalsData reception may be interrupted by noiseUse techniques similar to RAID to transmit redundant data (parity)
اسلاید 42: 42Disconnectivity and ConsistencyA mobile host may remain in operation during periods of disconnection.Problems created if the user of the mobile host issues queries and updates on data that resides or is cached locally:Recoverability: Updates entered on a disconnected machine may be lost if the mobile host fails. Since the mobile host represents a single point of failure, stable storage cannot be simulated well.Consistency : Cached data may become out of date, but the mobile host cannot discover this until it is reconnected.
اسلاید 43: 43Mobile UpdatesPartitioning via disconnection is the normal mode of operation in mobile computing.For data updated by only one mobile host, simple to propagate update when mobile host reconnects in other cases data may become invalid and updates may conflict.When data are updated by other computers, invalidation reports inform a reconnected mobile host of out-of-date cache entries however, mobile host may miss a report.Version-numbering-based schemes guarantee only that if two hosts independently update the same version of a document, the clash will be detected eventually, when the hosts exchange information either directly or through a common host.More on this shortlyAutomatic reconciliation of inconsistent copies of data is difficultManual intervention may be needed
اسلاید 44: 44Detecting Inconsistent UpdatesVersion vector scheme used to detect inconsistent updates to documents at different hosts (sites).Copies of document d at hosts i and j are inconsistent if the copy of document d at i contains updates performed by host k that have not been propagated to host j (k may be the same as i), andthe copy of d at j contains updates performed by host l that have not been propagated to host i (l may be the same as j)Basic idea: each host i stores, with its copy of each document d, a version vector - a set of version numbers, with an element Vd,i [k] for every other host kWhen a host i updates a document d, it increments the version number Vd,i [i] by 1
اسلاید 45: 45Detecting Inconsistent Updates (Cont.)When two hosts i and j connect to each other they check if the copies of all documents d that they share are consistent:If the version vectors are the same on both hosts (that is, for each k, Vd,i [k] = Vd,j [k]) then the copies of d are identical.If, for each k, Vd,i [k] Vd,j [k], and the version vectors are not identical, then the copy of document d at host i is older than the one at host jThat is, the copy of document d at host j was obtained by one or more modifications of the copy of d at host i. Host i replaces its copy of d, as well as its copy of the version vector for d, with the copies from host j.If there is a pair of hosts k and m such that Vd,i [k]< Vd,j [k], and Vd,i [m] > Vd,j [m], then the copies are inconsistentThat is, two or more updates have been performed on d independently.
اسلاید 46: 46Handling Inconsistent UpdatesDealing with inconsistent updates is hard in general. Manual intervention often required to merge the updates.Version vector schemeswere developed to deal with failures in a distributed file system, where inconsistencies are rare.are used to maintain a unified file system between a fixed host and a mobile computer, where updates at the two hosts have to be merged periodically. Also used for similar purposes in groupware systems.are used in database systems where mobile users may need to perform transactions. In this case, a “document” may be a single record.Inconsistencies must either be very rare, or fall in special cases that are easy to deal with in most cases
اسلاید 47: 47End of Chapter
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