Chapter 4: Advanced SQL

Chapter 4: Advanced SQL

اسلاید 1: Chapter 4: Advanced SQL

اسلاید 2: Chapter 4: Advanced SQLSQL Data Types and SchemasIntegrity Constraints AuthorizationEmbedded SQLDynamic SQLFunctions and Procedural Constructs**Recursive Queries**Advanced SQL Features**

اسلاید 3: Built-in Data Types in SQL date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and dateExample: date ‘2005-7-27’time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.Example: time ‘09:00:30’ time ‘09:00:30.75’timestamp: date plus time of dayExample: timestamp ‘2005-7-27 09:00:30.75’interval: period of timeExample: interval ‘1’ daySubtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an interval valueInterval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values

اسلاید 4: Build-in Data Types in SQL (Cont.)Can extract values of individual fields from date/time/timestampExample: extract (year from r.starttime) Can cast string types to date/time/timestamp Example: cast <string-valued-expression> as dateExample: cast <string-valued-expression> as time

اسلاید 5: User-Defined Typescreate type construct in SQL creates user-defined typecreate type Dollars as numeric (12,2) final create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined domain typescreate domain person_name char(20) not nullTypes and domains are similar. Domains can have constraints, such as not null, specified on them.

اسلاید 6: Domain ConstraintsDomain constraints are the most elementary form of integrity constraint. They test values inserted in the database, and test queries to ensure that the comparisons make sense. New domains can be created from existing data typesExample:create domain Dollars numeric(12, 2) create domain Pounds numeric(12,2)We cannot assign or compare a value of type Dollars to a value of type Pounds. However, we can convert type as below (cast r.A as Pounds) (Should also multiply by the dollar-to-pound conversion-rate)

اسلاید 7: Large-Object TypesLarge objects (photos, videos, CAD files, etc.) are stored as a large object:blob: binary large object -- object is a large collection of uninterpreted binary data (whose interpretation is left to an application outside of the database system)clob: character large object -- object is a large collection of character dataWhen a query returns a large object, a pointer is returned rather than the large object itself.

اسلاید 8: Integrity ConstraintsIntegrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database, by ensuring that authorized changes to the database do not result in a loss of data consistency. A checking account must have a balance greater than $10,000.00A salary of a bank employee must be at least $4.00 an hourA customer must have a (non-null) phone number

اسلاید 9: Constraints on a Single Relation not nullprimary keyuniquecheck (P ), where P is a predicate

اسلاید 10: Not Null Constraint Declare branch_name for branch is not null branch_name char(15) not nullDeclare the domain Dollars to be not null create domain Dollars numeric(12,2) not null

اسلاید 11: The Unique Constraintunique ( A1, A2, …, Am)The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, … AmForm a candidate key.Candidate keys are permitted to be non null (in contrastto primary keys).

اسلاید 12: The check clausecheck (P ), where P is a predicateExample: Declare branch_name as the primary key for branch and ensure that the values of assets are non-negative.create table branch (branch_name char(15), branch_city char(30), assets integer, primary key (branch_name), check (assets >= 0))

اسلاید 13: The check clause (Cont.)The check clause in SQL-92 permits domains to be restricted:Use check clause to ensure that an hourly_wage domain allows only values greater than a specified value.create domain hourly_wage numeric(5,2) constraint value_test check(value > = 4.00)The domain has a constraint that ensures that the hourly_wage is greater than 4.00The clause constraint value_test is optional; useful to indicate which constraint an update violated.

اسلاید 14: Referential IntegrityEnsures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation.Example: If “Perryridge” is a branch name appearing in one of the tuples in the account relation, then there exists a tuple in the branch relation for branch “Perryridge”.Primary and candidate keys and foreign keys can be specified as part of the SQL create table statement:The primary key clause lists attributes that comprise the primary key.The unique key clause lists attributes that comprise a candidate key.The foreign key clause lists the attributes that comprise the foreign key and the name of the relation referenced by the foreign key. By default, a foreign key references the primary key attributes of the referenced table.

اسلاید 15: Referential Integrity in SQL – Examplecreate table customer (customer_namechar(20), customer_streetchar(30), customer_citychar(30), primary key (customer_name ))create table branch (branch_namechar(15), branch_citychar(30), assetsnumeric(12,2), primary key (branch_name ))

اسلاید 16: Referential Integrity in SQL – Example (Cont.)create table account (account_numberchar(10), branch_namechar(15), balanceinteger, primary key (account_number), foreign key (branch_name) references branch )create table depositor (customer_namechar(20), account_numberchar(10), primary key (customer_name, account_number), foreign key (account_number ) references account, foreign key (customer_name ) references customer )

اسلاید 17: AssertionsAn assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the database always to satisfy.An assertion in SQL takes the formcreate assertion <assertion-name> check <predicate>When an assertion is made, the system tests it for validity, and tests it again on every update that may violate the assertionThis testing may introduce a significant amount of overhead; hence assertions should be used with great care.Asserting for all X, P(X) is achieved in a round-about fashion using not exists X such that not P(X)

اسلاید 18: Assertion ExampleEvery loan has at least one borrower who maintains an account with a minimum balance or $1000.00 create assertion balance_constraint check (not exists ( select * from loan where not exists ( select * from borrower, depositor, account where loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number and borrower.customer_name = depositor.customer_name and depositor.account_number = account.account_number and account.balance >= 1000)))

اسلاید 19: Assertion ExampleThe sum of all loan amounts for each branch must be less than the sum of all account balances at the branch. create assertion sum_constraint check (not exists (select * from branch where (select sum(amount ) from loan where loan.branch_name = branch.branch_name ) >= (select sum (amount ) from account where loan.branch_name = branch.branch_name )))

اسلاید 20: AuthorizationForms of authorization on parts of the database:Read - allows reading, but not modification of data.Insert - allows insertion of new data, but not modification of existing data.Update - allows modification, but not deletion of data.Delete - allows deletion of data.Forms of authorization to modify the database schema (covered in Chapter 8):Index - allows creation and deletion of indices.Resources - allows creation of new relations.Alteration - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a relation.Drop - allows deletion of relations.

اسلاید 21: Authorization Specification in SQLThe grant statement is used to confer authorizationgrant <privilege list>on <relation name or view name> to <user list><user list> is:a user-idpublic, which allows all valid users the privilege grantedA role (more on this in Chapter 8)Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any privileges on the underlying relations.The grantor of the privilege must already hold the privilege on the specified item (or be the database administrator).

اسلاید 22: Privileges in SQLselect: allows read access to relation,or the ability to query using the viewExample: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select authorization on the branch relation:grant select on branch to U1, U2, U3insert: the ability to insert tuplesupdate: the ability to update using the SQL update statementdelete: the ability to delete tuples.all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable privilegesmore in Chapter 8

اسلاید 23: Revoking Authorization in SQLThe revoke statement is used to revoke authorization.revoke <privilege list>on <relation name or view name> from <user list>Example:revoke select on branch from U1, U2, U3<privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee may hold.If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege except those granted it explicitly.If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by different grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the revocation.All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also revoked.

اسلاید 24: Embedded SQLThe SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of programming languages such as C, Java, and Cobol.A language to which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as a host language, and the SQL structures permitted in the host language comprise embedded SQL.The basic form of these languages follows that of the System R embedding of SQL into PL/I.EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request to the preprocessorEXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement > END_EXECNote: this varies by language (for example, the Java embedding uses # SQL { …. }; )

اسلاید 25: Example QuerySpecify the query in SQL and declare a cursor for it EXEC SQL declare c cursor for select customer_name, customer_city from depositor, customer, account where depositor.customer_name = customer.customer_name and depositor account_number = account.account_number and account.balance > :amount END_EXECFrom within a host language, find the names and cities of customers with more than the variable amount dollars in some account.

اسلاید 26: Embedded SQL (Cont.)The open statement causes the query to be evaluatedEXEC SQL open c END_EXECThe fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the query result to be placed on host language variables.EXEC SQL fetch c into :cn, :cc END_EXEC Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query resultA variable called SQLSTATE in the SQL communication area (SQLCA) gets set to ‘02000’ to indicate no more data is availableThe close statement causes the database system to delete the temporary relation that holds the result of the query.EXEC SQL close c END_EXECNote: above details vary with language. For example, the Java embedding defines Java iterators to step through result tuples.

اسلاید 27: Updates Through CursorsCan update tuples fetched by cursor by declaring that the cursor is for update declare c cursor for select * from account where branch_name = ‘Perryridge’ for updateTo update tuple at the current location of cursor c update account set balance = balance + 100 where current of c

اسلاید 28: Dynamic SQLAllows programs to construct and submit SQL queries at run time.Example of the use of dynamic SQL from within a C program. char * sqlprog = “update account set balance = balance * 1.05 where account_number = ?” EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from :sqlprog; char account [10] = “A-101”; EXEC SQL execute dynprog using :account;The dynamic SQL program contains a ?, which is a place holder for a value that is provided when the SQL program is executed.

اسلاید 29: ODBC and JDBCAPI (application-program interface) for a program to interact with a database serverApplication makes calls toConnect with the database serverSend SQL commands to the database serverFetch tuples of result one-by-one into program variablesODBC (Open Database Connectivity) works with C, C++, C#, and Visual BasicJDBC (Java Database Connectivity) works with Java

اسلاید 30: ODBCOpen DataBase Connectivity(ODBC) standard standard for application program to communicate with a database server.application program interface (API) to open a connection with a database, send queries and updates, get back results.Applications such as GUI, spreadsheets, etc. can use ODBC

اسلاید 31: ODBC (Cont.)Each database system supporting ODBC provides a driver library that must be linked with the client program.When client program makes an ODBC API call, the code in the library communicates with the server to carry out the requested action, and fetch results.ODBC program first allocates an SQL environment, then a database connection handle.Opens database connection using SQLConnect(). Parameters for SQLConnect:connection handle,the server to which to connectthe user identifier, password Must also specify types of arguments:SQL_NTS denotes previous argument is a null-terminated string.

اسلاید 32: ODBC Codeint ODBCexample(){ RETCODE error; HENV env; /* environment */ HDBC conn; /* database connection */ SQLAllocEnv(&env); SQLAllocConnect(env, &conn); SQLConnect(conn, aura.bell-labs.com, SQL_NTS, avi, SQL_NTS, avipasswd, SQL_NTS); { …. Do actual work … } SQLDisconnect(conn); SQLFreeConnect(conn); SQLFreeEnv(env); }

اسلاید 33: ODBC Code (Cont.)Program sends SQL commands to the database by using SQLExecDirectResult tuples are fetched using SQLFetch()SQLBindCol() binds C language variables to attributes of the query result When a tuple is fetched, its attribute values are automatically stored in corresponding C variables.Arguments to SQLBindCol()ODBC stmt variable, attribute position in query resultThe type conversion from SQL to C. The address of the variable. For variable-length types like character arrays, The maximum length of the variable Location to store actual length when a tuple is fetched.Note: A negative value returned for the length field indicates null valueGood programming requires checking results of every function call for errors; we have omitted most checks for brevity.

اسلاید 34: ODBC Code (Cont.)Main body of program char branchname[80]; float balance; int lenOut1, lenOut2; HSTMT stmt; SQLAllocStmt(conn, &stmt); char * sqlquery = select branch_name, sum (balance) from account group by branch_name; error = SQLExecDirect(stmt, sqlquery, SQL_NTS); if (error == SQL_SUCCESS) { SQLBindCol(stmt, 1, SQL_C_CHAR, branchname , 80, &lenOut1); SQLBindCol(stmt, 2, SQL_C_FLOAT, &balance, 0 , &lenOut2); while (SQLFetch(stmt) >= SQL_SUCCESS) { printf ( %s %gn, branchname, balance); } } SQLFreeStmt(stmt, SQL_DROP);

اسلاید 35: More ODBC FeaturesPrepared StatementSQL statement prepared: compiled at the databaseCan have placeholders: E.g. insert into account values(?,?,?)Repeatedly executed with actual values for the placeholdersMetadata featuresfinding all the relations in the database andfinding the names and types of columns of a query result or a relation in the database.By default, each SQL statement is treated as a separate transaction that is committed automatically.Can turn off automatic commit on a connectionSQLSetConnectOption(conn, SQL_AUTOCOMMIT, 0)} transactions must then be committed or rolled back explicitly by SQLTransact(conn, SQL_COMMIT) orSQLTransact(conn, SQL_ROLLBACK)

اسلاید 36: ODBC Conformance LevelsConformance levels specify subsets of the functionality defined by the standard.CoreLevel 1 requires support for metadata queryingLevel 2 requires ability to send and retrieve arrays of parameter values and more detailed catalog information.SQL Call Level Interface (CLI) standard similar to ODBC interface, but with some minor differences.

اسلاید 37: JDBCJDBC is a Java API for communicating with database systems supporting SQLJDBC supports a variety of features for querying and updating data, and for retrieving query resultsJDBC also supports metadata retrieval, such as querying about relations present in the database and the names and types of relation attributesModel for communicating with the database:Open a connectionCreate a “statement” objectExecute queries using the Statement object to send queries and fetch resultsException mechanism to handle errors

اسلاید 38: JDBC Codepublic static void JDBCexample(String dbid, String userid, String passwd) { try { Class.forName (oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver); Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection( jdbc:oracle:thin:@aura.bell-labs.com:2000:bankdb, userid, passwd); Statement stmt = conn.createStatement(); … Do Actual Work …. stmt.close(); conn.close(); } catch (SQLException sqle) { System.out.println(SQLException : + sqle); } }

اسلاید 39: JDBC Code (Cont.)Update to databasetry { stmt.executeUpdate( insert into account values (A-9732, Perryridge, 1200)); } catch (SQLException sqle) { System.out.println(Could not insert tuple. + sqle);}Execute query and fetch and print results ResultSet rset = stmt.executeQuery( select branch_name, avg(balance) from account group by branch_name);while (rset.next()) {System.out.println( rset.getString(branch_name) + + rset.getFloat(2));}

اسلاید 40: JDBC Code Details Getting result fields:rs.getString(“branchname”) and rs.getString(1) equivalent if branchname is the first argument of select result.Dealing with Null valuesint a = rs.getInt(“a”);if (rs.wasNull()) Systems.out.println(“Got null value”);

اسلاید 41: Procedural Extensions and Stored ProceduresSQL provides a module language Permits definition of procedures in SQL, with if-then-else statements, for and while loops, etc.more in Chapter 9Stored ProceduresCan store procedures in the database then execute them using the call statementpermit external applications to operate on the database without knowing about internal detailsThese features are covered in Chapter 9 (Object Relational Databases)

اسلاید 42: Functions and ProceduresSQL:1999 supports functions and proceduresFunctions/procedures can be written in SQL itself, or in an external programming languageFunctions are particularly useful with specialized data types such as images and geometric objectsExample: functions to check if polygons overlap, or to compare images for similaritySome database systems support table-valued functions, which can return a relation as a resultSQL:1999 also supports a rich set of imperative constructs, includingLoops, if-then-else, assignmentMany databases have proprietary procedural extensions to SQL that differ from SQL:1999

اسلاید 43: SQL FunctionsDefine a function that, given the name of a customer, returns the count of the number of accounts owned by the customer. create function account_count (customer_name varchar(20)) returns integer begin declare a_count integer; select count (* ) into a_count from depositor where depositor.customer_name = customer_name return a_count; endFind the name and address of each customer that has more than one account.select customer_name, customer_street, customer_city from customer where account_count (customer_name ) > 1

اسلاید 44: Table FunctionsSQL:2003 added functions that return a relation as a resultExample: Return all accounts owned by a given customercreate function accounts_of (customer_name char(20)returns table ( account_number char(10),branch_name char(15),balance numeric(12,2))return table(select account_number, branch_name, balance from account where exists ( select * from depositor where depositor.customer_name = accounts_of.customer_name and depositor.account_number = account.account_number ))

اسلاید 45: Table Functions (cont’d)Usageselect *from table (accounts_of (‘Smith’))

اسلاید 46: SQL ProceduresThe author_count function could instead be written as procedure:create procedure account_count_proc (in title varchar(20), out a_count integer) begin select count(author) into a_count from depositor where depositor.customer_name = account_count_proc.customer_name endProcedures can be invoked either from an SQL procedure or from embedded SQL, using the call statement.declare a_count integer; call account_count_proc( ‘Smith’, a_count);Procedures and functions can be invoked also from dynamic SQLSQL:1999 allows more than one function/procedure of the same name (called name overloading), as long as the number of arguments differ, or at least the types of the arguments differ

اسلاید 47: Procedural ConstructsCompound statement: begin … end, May contain multiple SQL statements between begin and end.Local variables can be declared within a compound statementsWhile and repeat statements:declare n integer default 0;while n < 10 do set n = n + 1end while repeat set n = n – 1until n = 0end repeat

اسلاید 48: Procedural Constructs (Cont.)For loopPermits iteration over all results of a queryExample: find total of all balances at the Perryridge branch declare n integer default 0; for r as select balance from account where branch_name = ‘Perryridge’ do set n = n + r.balance end for

اسلاید 49: Procedural Constructs (cont.)Conditional statements (if-then-else) E.g. To find sum of balances for each of three categories of accounts (with balance <1000, >=1000 and <5000, >= 5000)if r.balance < 1000 then set l = l + r.balance elseif r.balance < 5000 then set m = m + r.balance else set h = h + r.balance end if SQL:1999 also supports a case statement similar to C case statementSignaling of exception conditions, and declaring handlers for exceptionsdeclare out_of_stock condition declare exit handler for out_of_stock begin … .. signal out-of-stock endThe handler here is exit -- causes enclosing begin..end to be exitedOther actions possible on exception

اسلاید 50: External Language Functions/ProceduresSQL:1999 permits the use of functions and procedures written in other languages such as C or C++ Declaring external language procedures and functions create procedure account_count_proc(in customer_name varchar(20), out count integer) language C external name ’ /usr/avi/bin/account_count_proc’ create function account_count(customer_name varchar(20)) returns integer language C external name ‘/usr/avi/bin/author_count’

اسلاید 51: External Language Routines (Cont.)Benefits of external language functions/procedures: more efficient for many operations, and more expressive powerDrawbacksCode to implement function may need to be loaded into database system and executed in the database system’s address spacerisk of accidental corruption of database structuressecurity risk, allowing users access to unauthorized dataThere are alternatives, which give good security at the cost of potentially worse performanceDirect execution in the database system’s space is used when efficiency is more important than security

اسلاید 52: Security with External Language RoutinesTo deal with security problemsUse sandbox techniques that is use a safe language like Java, which cannot be used to access/damage other parts of the database codeOr, run external language functions/procedures in a separate process, with no access to the database process’ memoryParameters and results communicated via inter-process communicationBoth have performance overheadsMany database systems support both above approaches as well as direct executing in database system address space

اسلاید 53: Recursion in SQLSQL:1999 permits recursive view definitionExample: find all employee-manager pairs, where the employee reports to the manager directly or indirectly (that is manager’s manager, manager’s manager’s manager, etc.) with recursive empl (employee_name, manager_name ) as ( select employee_name, manager_name from manager union select manager.employee_name, empl.manager_name from manager, empl where manager.manager_name = empl.employe_name) select * from emplThis example view, empl, is called the transitive closure of the manager relation

اسلاید 54: The Power of RecursionRecursive views make it possible to write queries, such as transitive closure queries, that cannot be written without recursion or iteration.Intuition: Without recursion, a non-recursive non-iterative program can perform only a fixed number of joins of manager with itselfThis can give only a fixed number of levels of managersGiven a program we can construct a database with a greater number of levels of managers on which the program will not workThe next slide shows a manager relation and each step of the iterative process that constructs empl from its recursive definition. The final result is called the fixed point of the recursive view definition.Recursive views are required to be monotonic. That is, if we add tuples to manger the view contains all of the tuples it contained before, plus possibly more

اسلاید 55: Example of Fixed-Point Computation

اسلاید 56: Advanced SQL Features**Create a table with the same schema as an existing table:create table temp_account like accountSQL:2003 allows subqueries to occur anywhere a value is required provided the subquery returns only one value. This applies to updates as wellSQL:2003 allows subqueries in the from clause to access attributes of other relations in the from clause using the lateral construct:select customer_name, num_accountsfrom customer, lateral (select count(*) from accountwhere account.customer_name = customer.customer_name )as this_customer (num_accounts )

اسلاید 57: Advanced SQL Features (cont’d)Merge construct allows batch processing of updates.Example: relation funds_received (account_number, amount ) has batch of deposits to be added to the proper account in the account relationmerge into account as Ausing (select * from funds_received as F )on (A.account_number = F.account_number )when matched thenupdate set balance = balance + F.amount

اسلاید 58: End of Chapter