شیمی‌ آلی

شیمی‌ آلی

اسلاید 1: General ChemistryM. R. Naimi-JamalFaculty of Chemistry Iran University of Science & Technology

اسلاید 2: محمد رضا نعیمی‌ جمال شیمی‌ آلی ساعت رفع اشکال : شنبه ها و دوشنبه ها ۱1-۱0 مکان: طبقه اول دانشکده شیمی، اتاق 115naimi@iust.ac.ir E-mail:

اسلاید 3: امتحان میان ترم 8 نمره 4۰ % امتحان پایان ترم ۱۲ نمره ۶۰ % کار کلاسی و تمرین 1 نمره -غیبت مجاز: ۳/۱۷ کل ساعت درسیارزشیابی

اسلاید 4: فصل اول:مفاهیم اساسی‌

اسلاید 5: CHEMISTRY:Chemistry is the study of the properties, composition,and structure of matter, the physical and chemicalchanges it undergoes, and the energy liberated orabsorbed during those changes.

اسلاید 6: Why Study Chemistry?1. To better understand the world: what it is made of and how it works.2. Because it is the most practical and relevant of the sciences - chemistry is the study of EVERYTHING!3. It is the “Central Science” - All other sciences intersect at and depend on chemistry.It is essential to the national and local economies.It is required for virtually every major involving Science, mathematics, or engineering.And what reasons can you think of ?

اسلاید 7: Chemistry is an Observational ScienceObservation: Using the five senses to “see” what is and happens around you.Conclusion: An explanation of the cause or causes for one or more observations.

اسلاید 8: Observations vs. ConclusionsOBSERVATION:When electricity is passed through a salt solution, a yellow-green gas and a colorless, flammable gas forms. CONCLUSION:The yellow-green gas is chlorine and the colorless gas is hydrogen.

اسلاید 9: The Scientific Method1. Collect Facts or Data (Observe!!)2. Search for Generalizations or Laws to Summarize the Facts.3. Freely Use Your Imagination to Construct Theories or Models of Nature that Will Account for the Laws.4.Test Theories/Hypotheses for Accuracy.5.Modify Theories/Hypotheses as Necessary Based on Your Test Results.

اسلاید 10: فهرست ماده و انرژی واحد های بین المللی ‌SI عدم قطعیت و ارقام معنی‌ دار آنالیز ابعادی

اسلاید 11: انرژیمادهکائنات

اسلاید 12: طبقه بندی کائناتماده (Matter) : فضا اشغال می‌ کند، جرم و اینرسی‌ داردانرژی (Energy): توانایی انجام کار یا تولید حرارت

اسلاید 13: ماده وانرژیرابطه اینشتینE = mc2جرم – انرژی

اسلاید 14: The Law of Conservation of Matter: Matter is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction or a physical change.The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction or a physical change. It can only be changed from one form into another.The Law of Conservation of Matter/Energy: The combined amount of matter and energy in the universe is constant.E = mc2

اسلاید 15: حالات ماده گاز مایع جامد

اسلاید 16: حالات مادهSolid: has a rigid shape and a fixed volume that changes very little with temperature and pressureLiquid: like solids have a fixed volume but no definite shape (take on the shape of the container)Gas: no fixed volume - volume determined by the size of the container - the volume of a gas varies greatly with temperature and pressure

اسلاید 17: طبقه بندی مواد

اسلاید 18: طبقه بندی مواد Substance :(ماده خالص) A distinct type of matter. All samples of a substance have the same properties. Elements and compounds are substances. Mixture :(مخلوط) A sample of matter consisting of two or more substances which are NOT chemically combined.

اسلاید 19: Classification of Matter (Substances)Element: A substance that cannot be broken down (decomposed) into simpler substances by chemical reactions, e.g.: iron, gold, oxygen.Compound: A substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed ratios by mass.Water - H2O Carbon dioxide - CO2Sodium chloride - NaClIron(II) sulfide - FeSSubstances:

اسلاید 20: Classification of Matter (Mixtures)Mixtures: Homogeneous: A mixture having only one phase; it is uniform (the same) throughout and has the same properties throughout. These are called „Solutions”. Heterogeneous: A mixture with more than one phase. It is non-uniform and does NOT have the same properties throughout.

اسلاید 21: Matter and ChangePhase - A sample of matter that is uniform in composition and physical state and is separated from other phases by a definite boundary.

اسلاید 22: Physical Change: A change in which each substance involved in the change retains its original identity and no new elements or compounds are formed.H2O (s) H2O (l)melting

اسلاید 23: Matter and ChangeChemical Change: A change in which one or more elements or compounds (substances) are formed.“Reacting”2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (l)AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

اسلاید 24: Chemical and physical change

اسلاید 25: جداسازی (Separation)

اسلاید 26: کروماتوگرافی (Chromatography)1_17حلالABCمخلوطاجزائ مخلوط

اسلاید 27: Paper Chromatography

اسلاید 28: MeasurementChemistry is an Observational science.Chemistry is a Quantitative science.Measurement - A quantitative observation.

اسلاید 29: MeasurementAll measurements have three parts:1. A value26.9762 g2. Units3. An UncertaintyExamples: 33.2 mL72.36 mm426 kg31 people

اسلاید 30: MeasurementConversion Factors: A fraction whose numerator and denominator contain the same quantity expressed in different units.1 mile = 5280 ft1 mile5280 ft= 5280 ft1 mile= 11 cm = 0.01 m1 cm 0.01 m=0.01 m1 cm= 11 in = 2.54 cm2.54 cm 1 in= 1 in 2.54 cm= 1

اسلاید 31: MeasurementUncertainty in Measurements:Exact Measurements: Measured values determined by counting or when a value is defined. Examples: 31 people, 27 rocks, 2.54 cm = 1 inThe uncertainty in these measurements = 0Non-exact Measurements: All other measurements. The last digit recorded is uncertain; it is estimated!!Examples: 27.5 g, 32.7 mm12 467 km

اسلاید 32: MeasurementSignificant Figures: ارقام معنی‌دارEach digit obtained as a result of a measurement includes all of the certain digits and the first uncertain digit. The number of significant figures in a measurement is an indicator of the sensitivity of the measurement.

اسلاید 33: MeasurementRules for Significant Figures: All non-zero digits are significant. 25.79 km27 mL A zero between other significant figures is significant.207.9 nm100.7 mL

اسلاید 34: Measurement Initial zeros are NOT significant: 0.001 23 cm3 Final zeros after the decimal point ARE significant:23.100 ps Final zeros in a measurement with no decimal point may or may not be significant.3200 cm (might have 2, 3, or 4 significant figures!!) Exact measurements have an infinite number of significant figures. (They are CERTAIN!!)

اسلاید 35: MeasurementNumber6.29 g0.00348 g9.0 1.0  10-8100 eggs100 gCount from left from first non-zero digit.Significant Figures3322infinitebad notation

اسلاید 36: (Rounding Off) :گرد کردنReport to 3 significant figures:10.235 12.4790 19.75 15.639 7.025 10.212.519.815.67.02Note: 3rd digit is increased by one if 4th digit >5 and decreased to zero if 4th digit <5.If 4th digit is =5, 3rd digit is increased only if it is an odd number!

اسلاید 37: ارقام معنی‌دار: محاسبات ریاضی13.4Adding and subtracting:Use the number of decimal places in the number with thefewest decimal places. 11.676 + 1.14+ 0.6 13.416 35.2 mL + 0.34 mL = 35.54 mL = 35.5 mL1.00794 u + 1.490 u + 15.9994 u = 18.49734 u = 18.497 u

اسلاید 38: ارقام معنی‌دار: محاسبات ریاضیMultiplying and dividing:Use the fewest significant figures.0.01208  0.236= 0.51186= 5.12  10-1(9.5760 g)/(12.2 mL) = 0.785 g/mL5 34 3

اسلاید 39: واحدهای اندازه گیری SI

اسلاید 40: واحدهای اندازه گیری فرعی Derived QuantitiesForceNewton N = kg m s-2PressurePascal Pa = kg m-1 s-2EenergyJoule J = kg m2 s-2Other Common UnitsLengthAngstrom Å = 10-8 cmVolumeLitre L = 10-3 m3EnergyCalorie cal = 4.184 JPressure Atmosphere 1 atm = 1.064 x 102 kPa= 760 mm Hg

اسلاید 41: برگزیده پیشوندهای مورد استفاده درSI

اسلاید 42: Properties of MatterExtensive Properties (خاصيت مقدارى):Properties that depend on the amount of matter present in a sample.MassVolumeHeat CapacityIntensive Properties (خاصيت شدتى):Properties that do NOT depend on the amount of matter present in a sample.ColorTemperatureDensityMelting PointSpecific HeatBoiling Point

اسلاید 43: Temperature and Thermal EnergyTemperature: A measure of the “hotness”and “coldness” of an object; a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules of the object.The higher the temperature, the more kinetic energy the atoms and/or molecules have. Thermal Energy: Often called “heat”, it is the form of energy toward which all other forms tend to go.

اسلاید 44: (Temperature) دما

اسلاید 45: اندازه گیری دما

اسلاید 46: فارنهایتاین مقیاس به افتخار گابریل دانیل فارنهایت که دماسنج جیوه‌ای را اختراع کرد نامگذاری شده‌است. براساس مقاله‌ای که در ۱۷۲۶ توسط او نوشته شده، مقیاس او براساس سه نقطه پایه گذاری شده‌است. نقطه اول دمای مخلوط یک به یک آب و یخ و نشادر است که به عنوان صفر در نظر گرفته شده‌است. نقطه بعدی دمای مخلوط یک یه یک آب خالص و یخ است و نقطه سوم دمای بدن انسان. فارنهایت بعد از مشاهده فاصله این نقاط از هم به این نتیجه رسید که فاصله نقطه ذوب یخ خالص و یخ با نشادر نصف فاصله نقطه ذوب یخ خالص از دمای بدن است. پس برای سادگی تقسیم بندی بین این نقاط فاصله‌ها را به دو مقدار ۳۲ قسمتی و ۶۴ قسمتی تقسیم نمود که با نصف کردن چند باره فاصله‌ها امکان پذیر است. پس در مقیاس او دمای ذوب یخ خالص برابر با ۳۲ و دمای بدن برابر با ۹۶ درجه(۶۴+۳۲) اندازه گیری شد. فارنهایت مشاهده کرد که آب با این مقیاس در ۲۱۲ درجه به جوش می‌آید. بعدها دانشمندان در این مقیاس تغییراتی دادند تا نقطه ذوب یخ دقیقا ۳۲ درجه و دمای جوش آن ۲۱۲ درجه در نظر گرفته شود و فاصله آنها ۱۸۰ واحد باشد. به خاطر همین تغییرات دمای بدن انسان در این مدل حدود ۹۸ درجه به دست آمد.

اسلاید 47: تبدیل واحدهای دماکلوین به سانتی گراد: فارنهایت به سانتی گراد: Note: K and not °K

اسلاید 48: Sample calculations involving temperaturesExample: Convert 73.6 oF to Celsius and Kelvin temperatures.oC = (5/9)(73.6 oF - 32) = (5/9)(41.6)oC = (5/9)(oF - 32)K = oC + 273.15= 23.1 oCK = 23.1 oC + 273.15 = 296.3 K

اسلاید 49: حجم

اسلاید 50: ابزارهای اندازه گیری حجم

اسلاید 51: Dimensional AnalysisHow many meters are in each of the following?21 km1023570 mm(21 km)(1 x 103 m) = 21 x 103 m =km(1023570 mm)( 1 m ) = (106 mm)1.023570 m2.1 x 104 m

اسلاید 52: Sample Calculations Involving VolumesHow many mL are in 3.456 L?(3.456 L)(1000 mL) L= 3456 mLHow many mL are in 23.7 cm3?(23.7 cm3)( 1 mL )( 1 L_ _)(106 mL) (1 cm3) (1000 mL) ( 1L )= 2.37 x 10 4 mL= 23 700 mL

اسلاید 53: Dimensional AnalysisHow many mL are in 3.0 ft3?1 ft = 12 in1 in = 2.54 cm1 cm3 = 1 mL(3.0 ft3)(12 in)(12 in)(12 in)(2.54 cm)(2.54 cm)(2.54 cm)(1 mL) (1 ft) (1 ft) (1 ft) (1 in) (1 in) (1 in) (1 cm3)= 8.5 x 104 mLHow many ns are in 23.8 s?(23.8 s)(109 ns) (1 s) = 23.8 x 109 ns = 2.38 x 1010 ns

اسلاید 54: Mass and WeightMass: the measure of the quantity or amount of matter in an object. The mass of an object does notchange as its position changes.Weight: A measure of the gravitational attraction ofthe earth for an object. The weight of an objectchanges with its distance from the center of the earth.Mass is measured using a BALANCE.Weight is measured using SCALES.

اسلاید 55: Sample Calculations Involving Masses How many mg are in 2.56 kg?(2.56 kg)(103 g)(106mg) (1 kg) ( 1 g)= 2.56 x 109 mg How many g are in 2.578 x 1012 ng?(2.578 x 1012 ng) (1 g) (109 ng)= 2578 g

اسلاید 56: )Density( دانسیتهd = m/V unit: commonly g/mLm = Vd V = m/dMass and volume are extensive propertiesDensity is an intensive property

اسلاید 57: DensityWhat is the density of a cubic block of wood that is 2.4 cm on each side and has a mass of 9.57 g? volume = [2.4 cm x 2.4 cm x 2.4 cm]= 13.8 cm3density = (9.57 g)/(13.8 cm3)= 0.69 g/cm3 = 0.69 g/mLNote again: 1 cm3 = 1 mL

اسلاید 58: DensityWhat is the mass of a cube of osmium that is 1.25 inches on each side? Density is 22.48g/cm3

اسلاید 59: Wrong units

اسلاید 60: (Uncertainties) عدم قطعیتSystematic errorsThermometer constantly 2°C too low.Random errorsLimitation in reading a scale.PrecisionReproducibility of a measurement.AccuracyHow close to the real value.

اسلاید 61: صحت و دقت در اندازه گیریصحت به معنای درستی و به دست آوردن مقدار واقعی در یک اندازه گیریدقت به معنای نزدیک بودن مقدارها در چند بار اندازه گیریصحت خوبدقت خوبصحت بددقت خوبصحت بد دقت بد

اسلاید 62: Chapter 1, Questions3, 5, 12, 14, 17, 30, 38, 43, 49, 59, 60