مقاله انگلیسی مدیریت زباله و استفاده ان در پس از برداشت

مقاله انگلیسی مدیریت زباله و استفاده ان در پس از برداشت

اسلاید 1: In the name of god

اسلاید 2: Waste Management & cull UtilizationMaster: Dr. Researcher:

اسلاید 3: PRINCIPLES FOR REDUCING WASTEWaste Take steps to reduce waste whenever possible (table 9. l):Improve housekeeping. For example, some operations allow product to spill onto the floor. This wastes good-quality product, produce. solid waste, and unnecessarily uses water. Conveyers and transition points should be designed to prevent product spill. Change processing methods. In some situations there may be several alternative methods for accomplishing the same process er waste production in the selection process. Poorly designed machinery may damage product by allowing it to drop onto hard surfaces 01 be sheared as it moves past a protrusion. Some damaged product is removed as waste in packing. Other damage is not noticed until latei in the handling chain, and product may become unsalable at wholesale or retail marketing. Select packing and handling methods that produce less waste or produce waste that is easier to manage. For example. hydrocooling produces spent cooling water that must be posed of and requires water-resistant packaging (such as waxed fiber• board boxes) that may not be easily recyclable. In contrast. forced-ai cooling requiresno cooling medium disposal and allows the use of regular fiberboard, which is recyclable.

اسلاید 4: DISPOSITION OF CULLED PRODUCTMinimize the use of chemicals that contaminate waste and require special handling or disposal- Lye processing produces waste with a low pH that may need to be neutralized-Waste bline can be especially difficult to dispose of.Minimize wastewater flow. This is usually done by reusing and recycling water. Sometimes wash water can reused if solids are screened or settled out and disinfectants are kept at effective levels. As a general rule, the lowestwquality water should be used for initial cleaning of the product, and best-quality water should be used for the last step in processing. Minimizing water use may not decrease the total dry weight of solid waste but it does concentrate it. This may allow the use of smaller, less-expensive trealment systems and Écrharencourage economical recovery of product because solid waste is more -concentrated.Segregate wastes. Wastes that require special processing or disposal should be kept separate from other wastes. Some wastes can be sc. — for byproducts and should be separaled from wastes that must be dis- posed of.The most obvious way to reduce culls is to reduce the number of culls that reach the packinghouse. The producer should use the best cultural practices to produce a well-sized, unblemished commodity.

اسلاید 5: CATTLE FEEDCulled fruit is palatable and is a good source of energy for animals, but it is low in protein and has other haracteristics that make it different from other feed sources. For example, stone fruits (peaches, plums. nectarines) contain 85% water, 9% digestible dry matter, 4% pits, and 2% indigestible dry matter. The high water content diminishes the real value as feed because it makes culls expensive to transport, requires large trough volumes. and should be harvested and handled carefully to allows the feed to spoil quickly. If fed in large minimize injury, and harvesting personnel proportions, culled fruit causes almost con-should be encouraged to discard poor-quality fruits and vegetables in the field.Culls can also be reduced by lowering quality standards; however, this often results in the poorer-quality fruits and vegetables being culled by the retail distributor or the consumer. The added costs of handling and shipping poor-quality fruits and vegetables can increase the cost of good-quality produce. A packer shipping high-quality fruii.s and vegetables has a competitive advantage over ones that ship poor-quality product.However, even careful attention in the field does not eliminate the need for manage-ment of culls at the packinghouse. The cost tinuous urination, and consequently the ani maLs require a high amount of salt. The only potential advantage to the high water content is that animals in a remote. dry location will not need extra water hauled to them.

اسلاید 6: Low protein levels in culled fruit limit the quantity that can be fed. Where rapid weight gain is important. in feed lots, example, only about 20% of the ration can be com posed of culled fruit- As a maintenance ration. up to 80% of the feed can be culls. Stone fruit pits rarely cause internal injuries or choking. Cattle spit out some pits while eating, and manv of the remaining pits are regurgitated with the cud and spit out. In fact, the main problem with pits is disposing of them. as they tend to fill feed troughs.Culled fruit is typically bought for $2 to S5 per ton: In terms of feed value, this is equivalent tobuying barley for $20 to $50 per ton. However, the costs of handling and transporting culls must be added to this cost. Also, some cost must be added to account for the uncertain effects of using a feed that has not been thoroughly tested for nutrient levels and trace chemicals.Culled potatoes are good source of reed for animals. Like stone fruits, they are high in water content (abOut 77%), high in energy value, and low in protein. Beef steers can be fed up to 50% potato waste in finishing rations and still have acceptable Weight gain. However, the steers must be carefully adapted to a potato ration, and the ration should not be changed rapidly.TO a limited extent cattle are also fed culled cantaloupes and other muskmelons. Cool-season vegetable culls have also been used as feed- These culls all have the same general limitations already discussed.

اسلاید 7: ALCOHOL PRODUCTIONMost fruit and some culled vegetables (espeand tubers) can be used for alcohol production. Alcohol for human consumption has a much higher value than alcohol for motor fuel. Some culled pears, kiwifruits, and apples are used for fruit wine production in California, and some of the apple wine produced is converted to cider vunegar.The use of culls for fuel alcohol produclion is limited mainly by the low sugar content of most fruits and vegetables. The 8 to sugar content of most culled fruits results in an alcohol yield of about 42 Vmetric ton (10 gaVton) of fruit. Potatoes have one of the best yields of alcohol for culls at 83 to 104 Vmetric ton (20 to 25 gal/ton). but thisis still low compared to better feedstocks such as corn, which yield 375 Vmctric ton (90 gal/ton). The low yield makes it uneconomical to haul culls any significant distance. if production of fuel alcohol from culls is to be economical, it must bc done near the packinghouse. Low sugar content also results in 4 to 5% alcohol wines, which require considerable energy per gallon of alcohol to process and distill.

اسلاید 8: CULL DISPOSALUnfortunately, the limits to the use of culls often result in large portions of them being discarded. Improper disposal can cause sanitary and pollution problems.Flies and odor problems can be prevented by ensuring rapid drying. Fly maggots hatch into adults within 7 to 10 days, and odor problems can develop before flies appear. The culls should be crushed and spread no more than one or two layers deep; sometimes this is done on orchard roads or Tallow fields. Culls can be disked into the soil, although this tends to cover the fruit with soil and slows drying: also, insects or diseases that may have caused the fruit to be-—culled in the first place may infect a future crop. Disposal sites should be as far away from neighbors as possible. Flies can travel up to 8 km (5 m) from the place where they hatch.Culls should not be dumped near streambeds. Fruit dump sites can attract the dumping of many other kinds of refuse. If culls are deposited away from the point of production, use municipal solid waste disposal sites if available.

اسلاید 9: Packages for Horticultural Cropsmarketing and distributing horticultural products. They must protect fragile produCts against damage during distribution and must maintáin their shape and strength, often for long periods at high RH and sometimes after water contact. Many are designed to allow rapid cooling or products from field temperatures to low storage or transport temperatures,-and- they-must allow for continual removal of heat produced by the contents. Packages must be adaptable to high-volume packing operatiorus. They convey information about their •contents and when used for display must be attractive to the consumer.

اسلاید 10: TODAYS HORTICULTURAL PACKAGESMany materials, sizes, and are used in packages for horticultural products. In the United States alone, more than 500 different packages are used for produce. Past efforts at standardization have had limited success, but this situation is beginning to change in response to pressures from produce buyers. Major changes have been in response to economic considerations, the use of less-expensive materials, and the need to adapt to new packing and handling procedures. In the United States. most perishables are packed in corrugated fiberboard boxes, with a limited use. of plastic and wood boxes. Handpacking is used mainly for field-packed product. and most packinghouses employ mechanical packiåg. Most products are unitized and shipped on pallets.

اسلاید 11: PRODUCT REQUIREMENTSPROTECTION FROM INJURIESDeveloping successful packages for horticultural products emphasizes the different requirements of various products. Although these requirements vary widely with the commodity, marketing program, packing method, and so on, there are many generalities that apply to most commodities.Physical injuries to the product must be avoided wherever possible during handling and distribution. Some of the more obvious open wounds (e.g., cuts or punctures) often occur before packaging and can be eliminated by good supervision and sorting. Certain bruises. however, may accumulate throughout all stages of handling, inclbding packaging and distribution.Impact bruises (fig. 10.•1). Impact bruising results from dropping the product onto a hard surface- Because impact injury may not be immediately visible on the surface, careful quality control is needed to protect against the product into the package is a common cause of impact injury during packing. Installing decelerator strips at filling chutes and designing fillers to raise empty boxes to reduce drop heights during volume-filling reduce the incidence and severity of impact bruising. Packaged products can also receive impact bruising from drops during manual or mechanical handling with chutes or convevors, or during transport as a vehicle runs over a curb or pothole. Unit handling reduces the number of times an individual package is handled and thus the number of impacts. Rough handling by machinery can also cause impact bruising. Corrugated fiberboard can absorb some shock.

اسلاید 12: FACILITATING SPECIAL TREATMENTSCertain commodities have special treatmenus that must be considered in packaging selection and design. Examples are sulfur dioxide fumigation of grapes for decay control and methyl bromide fumigation of export commodities for insect controlThese treatments require well-vented packages through which the fumigant can readily flow. Venting sufficient for rapid cooling is more than adequate for fumigation- Some grapes are packed with pads containing sodium mctabisulfite that slowly release sulfur dioxide. This system requires a plastic liner with restricted ventilation.A [ew fruit and fruit-type vegetables are ripened at temperatures of 150 to 200C (590 to 680F) using ethylene gas. Packages [or these products need venting for uniform warming and ethylene treatment. Some commodities are damaged by ethylene and must be protected from it. In-package ethylene scrubbing products, which are in limited use, perfoññ best if package ventilation is restricted. Room scrubbers that circulate air in the storage room through an ethylene scrubbing unit require good package venting to be effective.Other special packaging requirements may exist for certain commodities- For example, gladiolus and asparagus must be packed upright to avoid curvature caused by geotropism. Asparagus is packed with a moist pad to reduce dehydration and to slow toughening- It must also be packed with some headspace above the spear tips to allow for growth and elongation.

اسلاید 13: COMPATIBILFTYWITH HANDLING SYSTEMSMost boxes are hand-lifted at some point in the marketing chain, so package weight must be limited. A few commodities are packaged in units designed only for mechanical lifts. For example, watermelons, bagged apples, and head lettuce for processing are shipped in pallet bins.Packaging may need special design features to make it compatible with packing equipment and handling procedures. For example, top flaps that extend upward may interfere with hand-packing. The package must be sized to facilitate unitization and mixed-load handling. RETAIL DISPLAYSome packaging systems are designed for use in retail displays. Most notable examples are berries that are packed in small baskets, and apples, oranges, carrots that are bagged in consumer-sized units. Advantages of consurner packages are that they can be designed to modify the atmosphere around the product and extend shelf life, improve sanitation by reducing opportunity for human contact, increase RH around the product and reduce moisture loss, and protect the product from mechanical injury. Their that it may be difficult to sort out the occasional poor-quality product, high RH may foster growth of decay, and bags or consumer containers may slow cooling. Packages to be used in retail display must fit the needs of the retailer, so package appearance becomes much more important than for other types of packaging.

اسلاید 14: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONSIn considering the cost of any new package, all of the costs of adapting it into the marketing system must be considered- These costs include packaging material, labor, modifications in packing and handling operations. and potential changes in product condition.Packaging costs include the Costs Of•package components•transportation•package make-up, labor, and materials•internal packaging materials (if needed)•storage Of package componentsPacking costs include the costs of•adapting to mechanized package distribution•new or modified equipment and facilities at packing operation possible reduction in packing labor effi— ciency•increased number of packing steps requiredPalletizing and handling costs include the costs. Of•changes in pallet stacking efficiency•labor, materials, and equipment for unitizing pallets•compatibility with various pallet materials and substitutesMarketing costs include the costs of•decreased load density in storage and in transport vehicles•special labor or equipment for handling•suitability of package as a display unit•disposal of packagesProduct value costs include the costs of•possible increase in product deterioration•discounts in sale price due to package failu res•possible negative impaCt on brand reputation related to package performance