Motivation

Motivation

اسلاید 1: MotivationOrganizational Behavior – Session 7-10Dr. S. B. Alavi, 2009.

اسلاید 2: Table of ContentsReinforcement TheoryEquity TheoryMaslow’s TheoryERG TheoryTwo-factor (Hygiene-Motivation) TheoryMcClelland’s Theory of NeedsCognitive Evaluation TheoryExpectancy TheoryMotivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory

اسلاید 3: DefinitionMotivation:The process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

اسلاید 4: Reinforcement theoryDominated the motivation literature until early 1960s.Conceptualizes motivation entirely in terms of observable behaviors.Assumes that behavior is caused by events external to the person.

اسلاید 5: Reinforcement theory (Con.)Behavior can be understood in terms of simple laws that apply to both human beings and animals.

اسلاید 6: Reinforcement theory (Con.)Individuals exhibit a particular behavior becausethey have been reinforced (rewarded) for that behavior in the past.Behavior modification:The process of using reinforcement principles to change behavior.

اسلاید 7: Reinforcement theory (Con.)Skinner (1974) defined consequences that influence the probability of behaviors:Positive reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors that they were contingent upon.Negative reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors by taking away or reducing its intensity.Punishments reduce the probability of behaviors.

اسلاید 8: Reinforcement theory (Con.)PunishmentPositive Reinforcement+May be effectivePunishmentPositive Reinforcement-Only short term suppression of the undesirable behaviors.

اسلاید 9: Reinforcement theory (Con.)Using punishment frequently, may create a fearful atmosphere, which undermines learning and the effectiveness of communication.Some important points for using rewards effectively:Use reward to get individuals engaged in an activity, and then gradually withdraw the reward when they show some interest.Make sure that it is clear to individuals what behavior the reward is contingent.Reward genuine achievements, such as high levels of effort and persistence. Avoid rewarding performance that required little or no effort.

اسلاید 10: Reinforcement theory (Con.)Some important points for using rewards effectively: (Con.) Use the most modest reward that will work.Make sure that the time between the desired behavior and the reward is not so great that reward has no effect.Make sure that rewards are realistically available. Make sure that you treat employees fairly!

اسلاید 11: Equity theoryBy J. Stacy Adamsdescribed the employment relationship as an exchange relationshipEmployees contributed inputsEmployees received outcomes in return.Inputs: Education, Previous work experience, Effort on the job, Training, and etc.Outcomes: Pay, Recognition, Praise by supervisors, Promotion, and etc.

اسلاید 12: Equity theory (Con.)Every employee compares himself/herself with other employees.When an inequity is perceived, there are 6 choices:Changing InputsChanging OutcomesDistorting perception of self or othersChanging inputs or outcomes of the referentChoosing a different referentLeaving the field123456

اسلاید 13: Equity theory (Con.)Procedural justice = the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewardshas strong impact on Organizational commitment, Trust in managers, intention to quit,Organizational citizenship behaviorsDistributive justice = Fairness of allocationis more important for Job satisfaction.Procedural JusticePerceived Distributed JusticeStrongly Influences

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اسلاید 15: Maslow’s Theory (Hierarchy of needs)Maslow hypothesized that within every individual there exists a hierarchy of five needs:Physiological: bodily needs;Safety: security, protection from physical and emotional harm;Social: affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship;Esteem: self-respect, autonomy, recognition, attention;Self-actualization: the drive to become what one is capable of becoming;

اسلاید 16: Maslow’s Theory (Con.)According to Maslow, when each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

اسلاید 17: Maslow’s Theory (Con.)This theory can give us an insight into motivation in terms of needs.It has been argued that Maslow’s theory has cultural limitations.There is no strong empirical evidence for the hierarchy of needs.

اسلاید 18: ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1970) Three dimensions of ERG theoryERG theory proposes thatMore than one need may be operative at the same timeOrder of needs may differ in different culturesIf fulfillment of a higher level need is prevented, the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases.ExistenceRelatednessGrowth

اسلاید 19: McClelland’s Theory of NeedsFocuses on three needs:Need for AchievementNeed for PowerNeed for AffiliationThe following relation is well- Supported in research:Achievement NeedJob Performance

اسلاید 20: Two-factor (hygiene-motivation) TheoryHerzberg investigated the question ‘What do people want from their jobs?’Results suggested that Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievements seemed to be related to job satisfaction.Dissatisfaction was attributed to extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working condition.Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not two opposite sides of a continuum

اسلاید 21: Two-factor Theory (Con.)Motivators: Recognition, Responsibility, AdvancementHygiene Factors:Pay, Policies, Work Condition, SupervisionSatisfaction No SatisfactionDissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

اسلاید 22: Cognitive Evaluation TheoryStating thatAllocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall level of motivation.The popular explanation:Individuals experiences a loss of control over his or her own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes.

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اسلاید 24: Expectancy TheoryExpectancy theories use rational approachessuggest that individuals choose behaviors based on expectations of the outcomes of actions, seeking to achieve the most desirable outcome

اسلاید 25: Vroom’s expectancy theoryIntegrates three components:Motivation force = Valance × Expectancy × InstrumentalityValance is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome of a situation and is related to an individual’s expected incentive, preferences, and values.Expectancy is the belief that output from the individual (EFFORT) and the success of the situation are linked, e.g. if I work harder then this will be better.Instrumentality is the belief that the success of the situation is linked to the expected outcome of the situation, e.g. its gone really well, so Id expect praise.

اسلاید 26: Vroom’s expectancy theory (Con.)Implications for Leaders:Identify positively valent outcome;Increase expectancies;Make performance instrumental toward positive outcome.EffortPerformanceOutcomeExpectancyInstrumentality

اسلاید 27: Group TaskUse expectancy theory to explain motivational processes of:An employee’s motivation to become a manager;An employee’s motivation to participate in a training program.

اسلاید 28: Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive TheorySelf-Efficacy refers to “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3)necessary knowledge and skills is not sufficient to perform a task successfully, but also high self-efficacy is needed.

اسلاید 29: Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)Consequences of Self-Efficacy:The more people believe in their capabilities for given domains and tasks, the more likely they will put effort into and persist with their activities, especially when there are failures (Bandura, 1997). An individual’s self-efficacy also influences what he or she chooses to do.Leaders high in leadership efficacy experience low level of anxiety (Hoyt et al., 2003).

اسلاید 30: Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)High Self-EfficacySet high level goalsHigh AchievementMore likely toMay have

اسلاید 31: Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)Sources of Self-Efficacy:Mastery experiences: Successful experiences are likely to enhance self-efficacy, while failures may reduce self-efficacy. These are the most influential sources of self-efficacy.Vicarious experiences: refer to those by which people appraise their capabilities in relation to others’ attainments. The information acquired from these experiences is likely to be more influential for one’s self-efficacy when the others are similar to the individual.Verbal persuasion: persuasion that one possesses certain capabilities can affect self-efficacy. However, verbal persuasion may be ineffective when it is used alone and inconsistent with other sources, especially mastery experiences.Physical and affective states: Personal efficacy may also be appraised when people interpret their physiological or affective states. People may judge their fatigue, aches, pains, and tensions to be signs of physical or affective incapability.

اسلاید 32: Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)Empowerment and Self-EfficacyDimensions of empowerment:MeaningSelf-determinationSelf-efficacyImpact

اسلاید 33: Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)Collective Efficacy:Collective efficacy is defined as a group’s shared belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given levels of attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 477).Sources of collective efficacy can be similar to sources of self-efficacy.