واکنش های شیمیایی
اسلاید 1: Chapter 15 واکنش های شیمیایی Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 5th edition by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles
اسلاید 2: 2فرایند احتراق یک واکنش شیمیایی است که در آن سوخت، اکسید می شود و انرژی آزاد می گردد.سوخت ها معمولا از ترکیبات یا مخلوط هایی شامل کربن و هیدروژن تشکیل یافته اند.مثال هایی از سوخت های هیدروکربنی:CH4 MethaneC8H18 OctaneCoalMixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2 and non-combustiblesدر این بحث ما تنها واکنش های کامل را در نظر می گیریم. اجزای شرکت کننده در فرایند را قبل از انجام فرایند، واکنشگر (reactants) و بعد از واکنش محصول احتراق (products) می نامند.
اسلاید 3: 3فرایند احتراق، کامل یا استویکیومتریک نامیده می شود وقتی همه کربن و هیدروژن موجود در سوخت بسوزند و به ترتیب به دی اکسید کربن و آب تبدیل گردند. این دو واکنش احتراق کامل به این صورت می باشند.Example 15-1A complete combustion of octane in oxygen is represented by the balanced combustion equation. The balanced combustion equation is obtained by making sure we have the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. That is, we make sure the mass is conserved.Note we often can balance the C and H for complete combustion by inspection.
اسلاید 4: 4The amount of oxygen is found from the oxygen balance. It is better to conserve species on a monatomic basis as shown for the oxygen balance.Note: Mole numbers are not conserved, but we have conserved the mass on a total basis as well as a specie basis.The complete combustion process is also called the stoichiometric combustion, and all coefficients are called the stoichiometric coefficients.In most combustion processes, oxygen is supplied in the form of air rather than pure oxygen.Air is assumed to be 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen on a volume basis. For ideal gas mixtures, percent by volume is equal to percent by moles. Thus, for each mole of oxygen in air, there exists 79/21 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen. Therefore, complete or theoretical combustion of octane with air can be written as
اسلاید 5: 5Air-Fuel RatioSince the total moles of a mixture are equal to the sum of moles of each component, there are 12.5(1 + 3.76) = 59.5 moles of air required for each mole of fuel for the complete combustion process.Often complete combustion of the fuel will not occur unless there is an excess of air present greater than just the theoretical air required for complete combustion. To determine the amount of excess air supplied for a combustion process, let us define the air-fuel ratio AF as Thus, for the above example, the theoretical air-fuel ratio is
اسلاید 6: 6On a mass basis, the theoretical air-fuel ratio isPercent Theoretical and Percent Excess AirIn most cases, more than theoretical air is supplied to ensure complete combustion and to reduce or eliminate carbon monoxide (CO) from the products of combustion. The amount of excess air is usually expressed as percent theoretical air and percent excess air.
اسلاید 7: 7Show that these results may be expressed in terms of the moles of oxygen only asExample 15-2Write the combustion equation for complete combustion of octane with 120 percent theoretical air (20 percent excess air).Note that (1)(12.5)O2 is required for complete combustion to produce 8 kmol of carbon dioxide and 9 kmol of water; therefore, (0.2)(12.5)O2 is found as excess oxygen in the products.
اسلاید 8: 8Second method to balance the equation for excess air (see the explanation of this technique in the text) is:Incomplete Combustion with Known Percent Theoretical AirExample 15-3Consider combustion of C8H18 with 120 % theoretical air where 80 % C in the fuel goes into CO2.
اسلاید 9: 9O balance gives Why is X > 2.5?Then the balanced equation isCombustion Equation When Product Gas Analysis Is KnownExample 15-4Propane gas C3H8 is reacted with air such that the dry product gases are 11.5 percent CO2, 2.7 percent O2, and 0.7 percent CO by volume. What percent theoretical air was supplied? What is the dew point temperature of the products if the product pressure is 100 kPa?We assume 100 kmol of dry product gases; then the percent by volume can be interpreted to be mole numbers. But we do not know how much fuel and air were supplied or water formed to get the 100 kmol of dry product gases.
اسلاید 10: 10The unknown coefficients A, B, and X are found by conservation of mass for each species. The balanced equation isSecond method to find the coefficient A:Assume the remainder of the 100 kmol of dry product gases is N2.
اسلاید 11: 11Then A is These two methods don’t give the same results for A, but they are close.What would be the units on the coefficients in the balanced combustion equation?Later in the chapter we will determine the energy released by the combustion process in the form of heat transfer to the surroundings. To simplify this calculation it is generally better to write the combustion equation per kmol of fuel. To write the combustion equation per unit kmol of fuel, divide by 4.07:The actual air-fuel ratio is
اسلاید 12: 12The theoretical combustion equation isThe theoretical air-fuel ratio isThe percent theoretical air is
اسلاید 13: 13orThe percent excess air isDew Point TemperatureThe dew point temperature for the product gases is the temperature at which the water in the product gases would begin to condense when the products are cooled at constant pressure. The dew point temperature is equal to the saturation temperature of the water at its partial pressure in the products.
اسلاید 14: 14Example 15-5Determine dew point temperature of the products for Example 15-4.What would happen if the product gases are cooled to 100oC or to 30oC?
اسلاید 15: 15Example 15-6An unknown hydrocarbon fuel, CXHY is reacted with air such that the dry product gases are 12.1 percent CO2, 3.8 percent O2, and 0.9 percent CO by volume. What is the average makeup of the fuel?We assume 100 kmol (do you have to always assume 100 kmol?) of dry product gases; then the percent by volume can be interpreted to be mole numbers. We do not know how much air was supplied or water formed to get the 100 kmol of dry product gases, but we assume 1 kmol of unknown fuel.The five unknown coefficients A, B, D, X, and Y are found by conservation of mass for each species, C, H, O, and N plus one other equation. Here we use the subtraction method for the nitrogen to generate the fifth independent equation for the unknowns.
اسلاید 16: 16The unknown coefficients A, B, D, X, and Y are found by conservation of mass for each species. Here we assume the remainder of the dry product gases is nitrogen.The balanced equation is
اسلاید 17: 17Enthalpy of Formation When a compound is formed from its elements (e.g., methane, CH4, from C and H2), heat transfer occurs. When heat is given off, the reaction is called exothermic. When heat is required, the reaction is called endothermic. Consider the following. The reaction equation isThe conservation of energy for a steady-flow combustion process is
اسلاید 18: 18A common reference state for the enthalpies of all reacting components is established as The enthalpy of the elements or their stable compounds is defined to be ZERO at 25oC (298 K) and 1 atm (or 0.1 MPa).This heat transfer is called the enthalpy of formation for methane, . The superscript (o) implies the 1 atm pressure value and the subscript (f) implies 25oC data, is given in Table A-26.During the formation of methane from the elements at 298 K, 0.1 MPa, heat is given off (an exothermic reaction) such that
اسلاید 19: 19The enthalpy of formation is tabulated for typical compounds. The enthalpy of formation of the elements in their stable form is taken as zero. The enthalpy of formation of the elements found naturally as diatomic elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, is defined to be zero. The enthalpies of formation for several combustion components are given in the following table. SubstanceFormulaMkJ/kmolAir28.970OxygenO2320NitrogenN2280Carbon dioxideCO244-393,520Carbon monoxideCO28-110,530Water (vapor)H2Ovap18-241,820Water (liquid)H2Oliq18-285,830MethaneCH416-74,850AcetyleneC2H226+226,730EthaneC2H630-84,680PropaneC3H844-103,850ButaneC4H1058-126,150Octane (vapor)C8H18114-208,450DodecaneC12H26170-291,010
اسلاید 20: 20The enthalpies are calculated relative to a common base or reference called the enthalpy of formation. The enthalpy of formation is the heat transfer required to form the compound from its elements at 25oC (77 F) or 298 K (537 R), 1 atm. The enthalpy at any other temperature is given asHere the term is the enthalpy of any component at 298 K. The enthalpies at the temperatures T and 298 K can be found in Tables A-18 through A-25. If tables are not available, the enthalpy difference due to the temperature difference can be calculated fromBased on the classical sign convention, the net heat transfer to the reacting system is In an actual combustion process, is the value of Qnet positive or negative?
اسلاید 21: 21Example 15-7Butane gas C4H10 is burned in theoretical air as shown below. Find the net heat transfer per kmol of fuel.Balanced combustion equation:The steady-flow heat transfer is
اسلاید 22: 22Reactants: TR = 298 K CompNi kmol/kmol fuelkJ/kmolkJ/kmolkJ/kmolkJ/kmol fuelC4H101-126,150-----126,150O26.508,6828,6820N224.4408,6698,6690Products: TP = 1000 K CompNe kmol/kmol fuelkJ/kmolkJ/kmolkJ/kmolkJ/kmol fuelCO24-393,52042,7699,364-1,440,460H2O5-241,82035,8829,904-1,079,210N224.44030,1298,669+524,482
اسلاید 23: 23Adiabatic Flame TemperatureThe temperature the products have when a combustion process takes place adiabatically is called the adiabatic flame temperature.Example 15-8Liquid octane C8H18(liq) is burned with 400 percent theoretical air. Find the adiabatic flame temperature when the reactants enter at 298 K, 0.1 MPa, and the products leave at 0.1MPa.
اسلاید 24: 24The combustion equation isThe steady-flow heat transfer is Thus, HP = HR for adiabatic combustion. We need to solve this equation for TP.
اسلاید 25: 25Since the temperature of the reactants is 298 K, ( )i = 0, Since the products are at the adiabatic flame temperature, TP > 298 K
اسلاید 26: 26Thus, setting HP = HR yieldsTo estimate TP, assume all products behave like N2 and estimate the adiabatic flame temperature from the nitrogen data, Table A-18.Because CO2 and H2O are triatomic gases and have specific heats greater than diatomic gases, the actual temperature will be somewhat less than 985 K. Try TP = 960 K and 970K.NeCO2840,60741,145H2O934,27434,653O237.529,99130,345N218828,82629,1517,177,5727,259,362
اسلاید 27: 27Interpolation gives: TP = 962 K.Example 15-9Liquid octane C8H18(liq) is burned with excess air. The adiabatic flame temperature is 960 K when the reactants enter at 298 K, 0.1 MPa, and the products leave at 0.1MPa. What percent excess air is supplied? Let A be the excess air; then combustion equation is
اسلاید 28: 28The steady-flow heat transfer is Here, since the temperatures are known, the values of are known. The product gas mole numbers are unknown but are functions of the amount of excess air, A. The energy balance can be solved for A. Thus, 300 percent excess, or 400 percent theoretical, air is supplied.Example 15-10Tabulate the adiabatic flame temperature as a function of excess air for the complete combustion of C3H8 when the fuel enters the steady-flow reaction chamber at 298 K and the air enters at 400 K.The combustion equation is
اسلاید 29: 29where A is the value of excess air in decimal form.The steady-flow heat transfer is Percent Excess AirAdiabatic Flame Temp. K02459.3202191.9501902.51001587.12171200
اسلاید 30: 30Enthalpy of Reaction and Enthalpy of CombustionWhen the products and reactants are at the same temperature, the enthalpy of reaction hR, is the difference in their enthalpies. When the combustion is assumed to be complete with theoretical air supplied the enthalpy of reaction is called the enthalpy of combustion hC. The enthalpy of combustion can be calculated at any value of the temperature, but it is usually determined at 25oC or 298 K. Heating ValueThe heating value, HV, of a fuel is the absolute value of the enthalpy of combustion or just the negative of the enthalpy of combustion.The lower heating value, LHV, is the heating value when water appears as a gas in the products.
اسلاید 31: 31The lower heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the gas turbine engine.The higher heating value, HHV, is the heating value when water appears as a liquid in the products.The higher heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the steam power cycle.See Table A-27 for the heating values of fuels at 25oC. Note that the heating values are listed with units of kJ/kg of fuel. We multiply the listed heating value by the molar mass of the fuel to determine the heating value in units of kJ/kmol of fuel.The higher and lower heating values are related by the amount of water formed during the combustion process and the enthalpy of vaporization of water at the temperature.
اسلاید 32: 32Example 15-11The enthalpy of combustion of gaseous octane C8H18 at 25oC with liquid water in the products is -5,500,842 kJ/kmol. Find the lower heating value of liquid octane.Can you explain why LHVliq< LHVgas?
اسلاید 33: 33Closed System AnalysisExample 15-12 A mixture of 1 kmol C8H18 gas and 200 percent excess air at 25oC, 1 atm, is burned completely in a closed system (a bomb) and is cooled to 1200 K. Find the heat transfer from the system and the system final pressure. Apply the first law closed system:
اسلاید 34: 34Assume that the reactants and products are ideal gases; thenThe balanced combustion equation for 200 percent excess (300 percent theoretical) air is
اسلاید 35: 35To find the final pressure, we assume that the reactants and the products are ideal-gas mixtures.
اسلاید 36: 36where state 1 is the state of the mixture of the reactants before the combustion process and state 2 is the state of the mixture of the products after the combustion process takes place. Note that the total moles of reactants are not equal to the total moles of products.but V2 = V1.
اسلاید 37: 37Second Law Analysis of Reacting SystemsSecond law for the open systemThe entropy balance relations developed in Chapter 7 are equally applicable to both reacting and nonreacting systems provided that the entropies of individual constituents are evaluated properly using a common basis.Taking the positive direction of heat transfer to be to the system, the entropy balance relation can be expressed for a steady-flow combustion chamber as
اسلاید 38: 38For an adiabatic, steady-flow process, the entropy balance relation reduces toThe third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero. The third law provides a common base for the entropy of all substances, and the entropy values relative to this base are called the absolute entropy. The ideal-gas tables list the absolute entropy values over a wide range of temperatures but at a fixed pressure of Po = 1 atm. Absolute entropy values at other pressures P for any temperature T are determined fromFor component i of an ideal-gas mixture, the absolute entropy can be written aswhere Pi is the partial pressure, yi is the mole fraction of the component, and Pm is the total pressure of the mixture in atmospheres.
اسلاید 39: 39Example 15-13A mixture of ethane gas C2H6 and oxygen enters a combustion chamber at 1 atm, 25oC. The products leave at 1 atm, 900 K. Assuming complete combustion, does the process violate the second law? The balanced combustion equation is
اسلاید 40: 40The mole fractions for the reactants and the products are Now calculate the individual component entropies.For the reactant gases:
اسلاید 41: 41
اسلاید 42: 42For the product gases:
اسلاید 43: 43The entropy change for the combustion process is Now to find the entropy change due to heat transfer with the surroundings. The steady-flow conservation of energy for the control volume is
اسلاید 44: 44
اسلاید 45: 45The entropy generated by this combustion process isSince Sgen, or Snet , is ≥ 0, the second law is not violated.
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