Coasts and Reefs

Coasts and Reefs

اسلاید 1: Coasts and Reefs: Shallow marine processes

اسلاید 2: Coastal SystemA beach is part of a coastal system, which includes several zones defined by their proximity to shore and the dominant processes that occur within them.

اسلاید 3: Offshore to ShorefaceOffshore and shoreface portions of the coastal profile are permanently submerged in water, below the low tide mark.An important feature that separates the offshore from shoreface zones is fairweather wave base – the depth at which water is affected by wave movement under normal weather conditions.

اسلاید 4: Offshore zoneThe offshore zone lies below fairweather wave base and is therefore unaffected by normal waves.The offshore zone normally only receives fine sediment that settles from suspension (but can receive coarser grained sediment during storms, when wave base is lowered).

اسلاید 5: Shoreface zone (lower part)The shoreface zone lies above fairweather wave base and is constantly affected by normal waves. The gentle gradient of the lower shoreface results from the smoothing out of sediment associated with the back and forth movement of the waves.

اسلاید 6: Near the top of the shoreface zone, the base of a wave is slowed down due to friction with the seabedThe wave is oversteepened, and breaks, losing much of its energy.Due to the loss of energy, some sediment can be deposited in sand bars.Shoreface zone (upper part)

اسلاید 7: Foreshore (The lower part of a beach)Once a wave breaks, its water moves as a sheet upslope as swash, and falls back toward the sea as backwash. The narrow area in which this occurs is called the swash zone.The location of swash zone shifts due to the rising and falling of the water level, associated with tides.The area affected by the swash zone on a daily basis is called the foreshore (between low and high tide marks)

اسلاید 8: Foreshore (the lower part of a beach)As the flow of swash slows (and eventually stops) in its upper reaches, some of the sediment carried by the water can be deposited. But much of the sediment is returned back down to the upper shoreface due to backwash.

اسلاید 9: BackshoreBeyond the Foreshore of some beaches is a backshore zone, characterized by dunes. Dunes are constructed by windblown sediment transported from the foreshore and elsewhere. Sediment can also be transported to the backshore area during storms, when big waves can reach far inland (note that a storm beach face can be seen well away from the normal beach face).

اسلاید 10: So where does beach sediment come from ?Not all shorelines are alike. Whereas some shorelines are dominated by deposition (as is the case for sandy beaches), others are dominated by erosion.Erosional shoreline area(material removed)Depositional shoreline area(material deposited)

اسلاید 11: Shorelines characterized by exposed bedrock and strong wave activity are important suppliers of beach sediment.Minerals of beach sediment derived mostly from eroded rocks along the coast match those of the source rocks.Black sandBasaltSediment from coastal erosionBlack sand beach, Big Island, Hawaii

اسلاید 12: Sediment from rivers…But most sediment supplied to beaches along continental coastlines is delivered to the coast by rivers.When a river enters a large body of water (e.g. ocean), its flow rapidly decreases, resulting in the deposition of sediment at the river mouth.The resulting sediment deposit is a delta.Mississippi delta(a river-dominated delta)

اسلاید 13: Sediment transport away from river mouthIf wave action is strong, sediment deposited at a river mouth can be transported along the coastline instead of forming a well-defined delta.Sediment reworked by waves and transported along coastline

اسلاید 14: How is sediment transported along a coastline ?Most waves move toward the shore at a slight angle.Consequently, the uprush of water (swash) from each breaking wave is oblique.

اسلاید 15: The direction of swash is oblique.However, the backwash runs back to the water at a right angle.Sediment particles are therefore transported in a zig-zag pattern along the beach.This “beach drift” can carry sand and pebbles hundred to thousands of metres per day.Beach drift

اسلاید 16: Longshore driftIn a similar manner, water in the shoreface zone flows toward the shore at an angle, and flows back at a right angle to the shore.The net result is a current that flows parallel to the shore. This is called a longshore current.The movement of shoreface sediment by a longshore current is called longshore drift.Longshore drift

اسلاید 17: Rip CurrentsBreaking waves approaching the beach carry water toward the beach. The water cant just pile up there: it has to escape back out to sea somehow. Various “paths of least resistence” (e.g low areas along sandbars) provide areas for water to flow back to the sea.If caught in a rip current, swim parallel to shore !

اسلاید 18: How to spot a rip channelRip channels (as seen from the air)Head of Rip channelRip channel(as seen from beach)Note: a rip current is different from undertow

اسلاید 19: Undertow results when water cannot escape as a rip current.Remember that water that is pushed toward the beach must return to the sea somehow ! If the water can’t escape as a rip current, it returns to the sea by flowing underneath the waves. UndertowSwimmers are less likely to drown from undertow than in a rip current (most so-called “undertow drownings” result from swimmers losing their balance in backwash and getting pulled out in a rip current).

اسلاید 20: A Short Note on ReefsAnother prominent feature of shallow marine settings is the reef. Reefs are natural structures of rock formed by marine animals.Today’s reefs are largely made by corals, but in the geological past, have been constructed by sponges and bizarre clams. Reef-building organisms build skeletons of calcium carbonate in the form of aragonite or calcite.Great Barrier Reef,Australia

اسلاید 21: The Beauty of ReefsCoral polyps (individual coral animals)Coral reefs are often called the “rainforests of the sea” due to the great diversity of creatures that form them. Note that the brilliant colours apparent in corals are from the microscopic algae in the coral tissues (different colours absorb different wavelengths of light)

اسلاید 22: Conditions necessary for reef developmentLarge reefs are limited to the warm seawater areas of the tropics.Calcium carbonate is easier to precipitate in warm water than in cold water. Secretion of calcium carbonate is aided by microscopic cells of algae that live in the tissues of reef builders (the algae remove carbon dioxide from the tissues, decreasing the acidity of the water).

اسلاید 23: Conditions necessary for reef developmentReefs also tend to preferentially form in areas where:Little clastic sediment occurs (such sediment particles smother reef builders).Nutrient levels are low.Water is shallow

اسلاید 24: Reef builders are zoned in a reef according to their form (encrusting forms tend to dominate the reef crest where wave action is strongest, while more delicate branching forms are confined to deeper water zones where water action is more gentle)Reef zonesA lagoon can develop behind a reef, where it is protected from strong waves

اسلاید 25: A special kind of reef: atollAn atoll is a special kind of reef that is ring-shaped and has a central lagoon. It is likely that Gilligan’s Island was set in an partially formed atoll.

اسلاید 26: How an Atoll FormsAn atoll is formed first as a reef that fringes a volcanic island.As the island sinks (after volcanic activity has ceased and the crust has cooled, becoming denser), the reef continues to build upward, eventually ending up as a ring-shaped structure.Gilligan’s Island ?

اسلاید 27: Bikini AtollBikini atoll (central Pacific) is a famous nuclear testing site (the US tested atomic bombs here in the 1940s and 1950s)So it makes sense that the “new swimsuit for the atomic age”was named…guess what.

اسلاید 28: …And we end up back at the beachThe bikiniEnjoy your break !

اسلاید 29: END OF LECTURE

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